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FUNDAMENTALS OF 
FARMING AND FARM LIFE 



FUNDAMENTALS OF 
FARMING AND FARM LIFE 



FUNDAMENTALS OF 
FARMING AND FARM LIFE 



BY 
EDWIN JACKSON KYLE, B.S., B.S.A., M.S.A. 

Professor of Horticulture and Dean of the School of Agriculture, The Agricultural and 
Mechanical College of Texas, 

AND 

ALEXANDER CASWELL ELLIS, A.B., Ph.D. 

Professor of the Philosophy of Education, The University of Texas. 



ILLUSTRATED 



CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 

NEW YORK CHICAGO BOSTON 






Copyright, 1912. 1922, by 
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 




DEn^'22 

)C1AG90763 



^ I 



PREFACE 

While there have been great strides in recent years in the 
development of text-books on elementary agriculture, the 
best texts are still unsatisfactory in many ways. The defects 
complained of arise largely out of the fact that these texts are 
usually prepared by busy scientists who, though they may 
know agriculture, have made little study of the mental proc- 
esses of children, have had little or no experience in teaching 
children, and are not very familiar with the exact conditions 
in the schools in which the texts are to be used. The result 
is that the subject-matter has not always been wisely chosen 
in the light of children's natural interests and needs, nor has 
the subject-matter that was chosen been organized in a care- 
ful, pedagogical manner, by starting always with the known, 
leading to the unknown through the known, and making the 
study a closely knit, coherent, living whole. Indeed, several 
of the texts are mere collections of articles on a dozen or more 
varied topics written by specialists in different institutions and 
without any common plan of organization or method of pres- 
entation. The children are not introduced gradually to the 
new technical terms, nor are proper apperceptive bases first 
laid before attempting to present the more complex processes 
of plant or animal growth. 

It was thought that by combining the efforts of the agri- 
cultural professor with those of the pedagogue it would be 



VI PREFACE 

possible to provide a text-book on elementary agriculture 
that would have the advantage of the accuracy and scholar- 
ship of the specialist in agriculture, and have also the organi- 
zation and pedagogical manner of presentation given to it by 
the specialist in education familiar with the conditions in the 
rural schools. All of the chapters were therefore first pre- 
pared on a uniform general plan by experts in the several 
fields and turned in to the pedagogical editor, who attempted 
to put each chapter into more teachable form and to organize 
the whole. It is believed that because of the carefully graded 
steps in the subject-matter, the preparation that is always 
provided for each new subject, and the simple language used 
the pupil can in this text cover with little difficulty much more 
ground and learn more complicated processes than he can 
with the usual text. 

It was also the purpose of the authors to provide a book 
that did not stop with giving mere advice about farm prac- 
tices to be memorized by the pupils, but taught first of all 
the fundamental principles of plant and animal growth and 
reproduction and of soil management. In this way the pupils 
are made able to understand the reasons for farm practices 
and to criticise any old or new practice independently. By 
emphasizing these far-reaching principles first, the thousand 
and one details of practice in the study of farm crops and 
animal husbandry which are later given become a matter 
for simple reasoning instead of a mere dead weight to be 
carried in memory. In order still further to develop the 
powers of observation, exercise the reason, and connect the 
lessons with the daily life and home needs of the pupils, lists 
of suggestive questions, exercises, and problems are provided 
for each subject. 



PREFACE Vll 

It is an astonishing fact that no text-book has given to the 
work of the farmer girls and farmers' wives more than a pass- 
ing mention. Undoubtedly, the conditions in the country 
schools make this problem difficult, but it is believed that, 
with the aid of the experts in domestic economy and rural 
teaching who generously co-operated, a very valuable be- 
ginning has been made in this text in enabling the school to 
give somewhat the same preparation for her life work on the 
farm to the farmer girl that is now given to the farmer boy. 

We have in general tried to broaden the conception of the 
course in elementary agriculture from that of a mere treatise 
on raising plants and animals for sale to that of a means of 
preparation for living intelligently and happily, as well as 
profitably, on the farm. 

It is a great pleasure to express here our appreciation of 
the assistance generously given by our colleagues in prepar- 
ing this book. 

Members of the faculty of the Agricultural and Me- 
chanical College of Texas prepared material for chapters as 
follows: Professor J. C. Burns, Professor of Animal Hus- 
bandry, the chapters on animal husbandry, cattle, horses, 
sheep, hogs, and the care and feeding of animals; Professor 
J. 0. Morgan, Professor of Agronomy, the chapters on farm 
crops and manures, fertilizers and rotation; Professor J. W. 
Ridgeway, Professor of Dairy Husbandry, the chapter on 
the care of milk and its products; Professor C. M. Evans, 
Superintendent of Agricultural Extension, the chapter on 
silos; Professor R. J. Potts, Professor of Highway Engineer- 
ing, the chapter on roads; Instructor E. F. Ferrin, the 
chapter on poultry. In every case the limits of an ele- 
mentary text necessitated cutting down and modifying the 



VIU PREFACE 

valuable material and illustrations furnished. Assistance 
in securing illustrations or criticism and suggestions were 
also received from Professors G. S. Fraps, State Chemist; 
Wilmon Newell, State Entomologist; G. S. Templeton, 
S. A. McMillan, and Harper Dean. 

From the Texas Agricultural Experiment Station Pro= 
lessor H. Ness gave assistance through criticism and sug- 
gestion, and Director B. Youngblood and Mr. J. M. John- 
son, Expert in Farm Management of the United States 
Department of Agriculture, stationed in Texas, prepared 
the material for the chapter on farm planning and ac- 
counting. 

Of the faculty of the University of Texas we are indebted 
for valuable criticism and suggestions on the first twenty- 
eight pages to Professor F. DeF. Heald; on plant growth, 
reproduction, and soils to Dr. I. McK. Lewis; on plant 
growth, farm crops, the garden, orchard, and shade-trees, 
and plant enemies to Instructor C. H. Winkler. The ma- 
terial for the chapter on the soils and climate of Texas was 
prepared by Professor F. W. Simonds, Professor of Geology; 
that for the chapters on the farm home and farm sanitation, 
home and school grounds, the preparation and use of foods, 
cooking in the one-room country school and sewing in the 
one-room country school was taken from the manuscripts 
of forthcoming Bulletins of the University prepared by Miss 
Mary E. Gearing, Professor of Domestic Economy; Miss 
Amanda Stoltzfus, Lecturer on Rural Schools, and Mrs. 
Mary Heard Ellis. To Mr. H. B. Beck, University land- 
scape gardener, we are indebted for valuable suggestions on 
yard plants and plantings. 

We are also indebted to Professor O, S. Morgan, of Co- 



PREFACE Di 

lumbia University, for very helpful criticisms and suggesti^s 
on many of the chapters. 

While the authors would make every acknowledgment to 
their generous colleagues for the excellence of the material in 
the several chapters, we wish to accept entire responsibility 
for any inadequacy or inaccuracy that may have resulted 
from the revision and reduction of the material to its present 
form. 

The many acknowledgments due for courtesies in the use 
of illustrative material are made in the body of the text. To 
Mr. D. T. Stephens we are indebted for the preparation of 
a large part of the drawings in the first four chapters, and to 
Miss Florence Rhine for several drawings in later chapters. 
We wish to express also our appreciation of the great assist- 
ance given by both the editorial and art departments of 
the publishers. 

E. J. Kyle. 

A. Caswell Ellis. 
Austin, Texas, August 1, 1912. 



PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION 

Ten years of increasing use in the schoolroom and farm 
home have demonstrated the soundness of the material and 
the plan of organization of this text, so that for this new 
edition few changes were needed in the essential chapters. 
The lists of references have been thoroughly revised; the 
chapter on poultry has been rewritten to include new and 
valuable material. 

The authors wish to acknowledge their indebtedness to 
Professor T. J. Conway of the A. & M. College of Texas for 
valuable assistance in the revision of the chapter on poultry, 
and to Professors J. O. Morgan, A. T. Potts, G. S. Temple- 
ton, S. W. Bilsing, and J. A. Clutter for assistance in revising 
the references for further study. 

E. J. Kyle. 

A. Caswell Ellis. 

College Station, Texas, September 1, 1922. 



SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER 

While the school should not try to force farmers' sons to 
become farmers, any more than it should force doctors' sons 
to become doctors, or merchants' sons to become merchants, 
it should at least stop leading the farmer's children directly 
away from the country and into the town. The teacher 
should encourage the natural interest w^hich both country 
boys and girls, and town boys and girls, have in growing 
plants and animals; should show them how agriculture is 
receiving the best thought of many of the most intelligent 
men and women in the world; how it offers to them not 
merely a happy and useful life, but as great a field for the 
exercise of intelligence and character and the application of 
scientific methods as do commerce, law, medicine, or any 
other field of effort. If the subject is fairly presented in 
both town and country schools it will attract not only such 
farmers' sons and daughters as are suited to farm life, but 
other children whose talents lie in this direction. Whether 
one ever engages in farming or not, his sympathies and out- 
look in life and his usefulness as a citizen will be vastly 
broadened by a well-planned study of the problems of 
agriculture. 

Before one begins to teach agriculture or any other sub- 
ject, he should get a clear idea of the ends to be attained in 
teaching that subject. With no definite end in view, one 

xi 



xii SUGGESTIONS FOB THE TEACHER 

wanders aimlessly about, arriving nowhere. With wrong 
conceptions of the aim of the course, the teacher may 
greatly injure the minds of the children he is guiding. 
Is the aim of the school course in agriculture to teach 
children certain facts and principles concerning farming 
and to have them gain a certain amount of skill in farm 
operations? Undoubtedly it is; but this is not all. Those 
children who will be farmers will be something else besides; 
they will be human beings with rich and varied mental ca- 
pacities that need exercise and opportunity to develop. In 
a word, the farmer is a man, and his course in agriculture 
should not only teach him about farming operations, but 
such subject-matter should be selected, and such methods 
employed in teaching, that, while he learns his agriculture, 
he learns also to use effectively his mental and moral 
powers, and to understand better his relation to his neigh- 
bors, to nature, and to the Author of nature. 

As an inheritance of the Middle Ages, men held for many 
centuries the absurd idea that man's greatest powers, such 
as imagining, conceiving, generalizing, and reasoning, were 
best trained when studying a certain small set of subjects 
that had no immediate, practical application in life, such as 
ancient languages and formal logic. The fact that in the 
study of a certain subject the truths learned or the skill 
acquired had such application seemed in their eyes to take 
away from the study its power to broaden the mind. For 
this reason certain subjects were spoken of as giving culture, 
and others that gave immediately practical knowledge were 
supposed to give no culture, or even to be opposed to cult- 
ure. Now, this is a totally false way of looking at the mat- 
ter. The fact that knowledge is, or is not, of immediate use 



SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER Xlil 

is not what determines its value in cultivating and broaden- 
ing a child's mind. The essential question is, Does the 
knowledge in question broaden his sympathies, refine his 
taste, develop his imagination and reason, and give him a 
new tool, new method, or new principle that he can use 
for further thinking in this or in other fields? Teaching the 
bare fact that something happened in Rome on a certain 
date is not giving the child culture, but pointing out the 
deadly results of animal gratification and of the unworthy 
use of wealth in Rome teaches a lesson that has applications 
all through a child's life and is of the highest cultural value. 
Just so, teaching the child the bare fact that a certain fer- 
tilizer is good for cotton, and a certain food good for hogs, 
has no special cultural value, and may have very little value 
for his future farming; but helping him to learn how plants 
and animals grow and are nourished, and to apply these 
principles to cotton or pig culture, gives him a kind of men- 
tal exercise that will help him in all similar problems in life. 
Moreover, it gives him certain general principles of feeding 
and of growth that will make his thinking clearer when later 
he tries to care intelligently for his own body or provide for 
his family or his nation. It is not the subject you are teach- 
ing that determines whether you are cultivating the minds 
of your pupils, but the character of the subject-matter 
selected within that subject and the methods employed in 
teaching it. For this reason great care has been exercised 
in this book to select those great but simple, far-reaching 
principles that underlie successful farming and farm life, 
and to show by concrete observations how these principles 
apply, instead of teaching merely unrelated facts and con- 
crete methods of doing farm work. Don't require pupils to 



XIV SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER 

memorize all the varieties of cane or milo, or all the sec- 
tions in which each crop is raised, or the exact numbers of 
hogs in Iowa, or the exact limits of weights for Tamworths, 
or other such details. The exact figures and other details 
are given in the text merely to round out the picture for 
the child when studying, to give definiteness and to increase 
interest. It is worse than a waste of the child's time to 
have him memorize from day to day masses of details 
which he forgets in less than a week. The needed details 
regarding a few crops and animals especially important for 
the neighborhood may be thoroughly mastered and held in 
mind by reviews. 

We would urge the teacher not to be satisfied with merely 
getting the children to understand the explanations and our 
illustrations, but always to stimulate them to exercise their 
own reasoning powers by finding other applications of these 
principles in their own experience or observation. To help 
the teacher, we have provided all through the book sugges- 
tive questions and problems for the pupils. Insist on the 
pupils thinking these answers out, or working them out for 
themselves. Don't tell them the answers, but help them to 
think for themselves. We have provided also definite ob- 
servation problems and tests and experiments, so that pupils 
may get practice in reading and following directions, in 
observing carefully, in recording accurately their observa- 
tions, and in drawing rational conclusions. We have care- 
fully selected such problems and experiments as are not 
beyond the powers of the fifth or sixth grade boy or girl. 
While it is difficult for children at the beginning to carry 
out directions carefully, record observations accurately, and 
reason clearly, most of them soon learn to do these things 



SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER XV 

if required to do so and if properly encouraged. The exer- 
cise of their new power and the recognition of their own 
new strength give them great pleasure and increase their 
interest in the work. Each child should have his own note- 
book, and keep it carefully all through the course. Remem- 
ber that the children get new power by doing and thinking 
things out for themselves, and not from the teacher's doing 
things for them or telling them about what others have done. 
It takes more time and intelligence on the part of the teacher 
at first to get the children to do things right themselves, 
and to think for themselves, than it does to do things for 
them and think for them; but when the pupils have once 
learned to think and do for themselves, they progress more 
and more rapidly as they go, whereas, by the other plan, 
they get weaker and weaker and need more help as the 
course advances. A child that has germinated a seed, 
marked the root and stem according to directions, watched 
to find out how each grows, and has written a record of his 
observation, will not only remember the results easily, but 
will be better able to work out some other new problem for 
himself; whereas the child that merely reads about how 
roots and stems grow, or is told about it by the teacher, is 
likely soon to forget it, and is no more able to work out a 
new problem at the end of his course than he was at the 
start. 

Again, the course in agriculture should be correlated with 
the other work of the school. The lessons in agriculture 
should help the spelling and reading work by requiring cor- 
rect spelling in the note-books and papers, and by having 
the children read interesting bulletins and nature poems and 
literary masterpieces dealing with farm life and the country. 



XVI SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER 

They should help the geography study by arousing interest 
in such questions as the relation of climate to production, 
the arithmetic study by sums in farm mathematics, and all 
science classes by pointing out the practical applications of 
the principles of these sciences in the daily work of life. In 
fact, agriculture properly taught enriches and enlivens every 
other study in the school by helping to connect these with 
the daily life and daily needs of the pupils. It gives the 
pupils not only facts and principles that will help them to 
get greater returns from their labor on the farm, but it starts 
new lines of interest and opens up to the young minds broad 
fields for future study in the varied sciences, some of whose 
principles they have learned to appreciate in their study of 
agriculture. 

It is hardly possible for any average child to work all of 
the problems, perform all of the experiments, make all of 
the observations, and write all of the reports suggested in 
the book. Circumstances and local conditions are so varied 
that no single set would suit all equally well. The large 
number given makes it easy to find a set suited to practically 
any condition. A part of the experiments may be performed 
by the teacher as demonstrations before the class, part may 
be omitted when first going through the book and given on 
the review, thus giving freshness to the work. At times it 
will be well to assign one part of the problems and observa- 
tions to one set of pupils, and one to another, and let each 
report to the whole class. Sometimes it would be best for 
only one pupil to try out a problem in his home plat and let 
all observe the results. Other observations and reports are 
better made by the class as a whole in company with the 
teacher, especially those demanding visits or rambles over 



SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER Xvil 

the neighborhood. It is especially desirable to have the 
children work on the problems at home. In this home study, 
free discussion with parents should not only be allowed but 
encouraged. When strong differences of opinion are devel- 
oped, do not try to settle the matter by argument, or by 
assumption of infallibility, but arrange a definite experi- 
ment and test the matter in the experimental garden, and 
have the boy do the same in his home plat. At times par- 
ents will not agree with your teachings. This is no reason 
for worry. Don't set yourself up to know it all, and don't 
treat your patrons' views with disrespect. State your 
reasons for your views and then decline to argue, but agree 
to put the matter to an experimental test. Making such an 
experiment will be a most valuable lesson for both pupil 
and parent. 

Always encourage the planting of the home patch by each 
child, and have him carry out in this patch work similar to 
that done in the school garden, and also larger operations 
than can well be undertaken in the school garden. The 
work in agriculture should be a uniting link between the 
home and the school. The child should carry into the home 
through his text-book, his home problems, and his home 
patch all the valuable things that he learns in the school, 
and the school thus become the centre of interest to which 
both children and parents look for information and guidance. 



CONTENTS 



FAGB 

Preface, v 

Suggest; ONS FOR THE Teacher xi 

CHAPTER 

I. Introductory 1 

II. Plant Growth 10 

III. How Plants Are Reproduced 46 

IV. The Soil 75 

V. Manures, Fertilizers, and RotxVtion . . . 107 

VI. Tillage and Farm Implements 134 

VII. Farm Crops 151 

VIII. The Garden 205 

IX. School Garden and Farm 223 

X. Fruit-Growing and Shade-Trees .... 236 

XI. Plant Enemies 258 

XII. Animal Husbandry and Cattle . . , . .291 

XIII. The Care of Milk and Its Products . . . 335 

XIV. Horses 346 

XV. Sheep 366 

XVI. Hogs . . 385 

XVII. Poultry 400 

xix 



XX CONTENTS 

CHAPTEK PAGE 

XVIII. The Care and Feeding of Animals .... 412 

XIX. Farm Planning and Accounting .... 427 

Appendix I. Roads . 439 

Appendix II. Silos 446 

Appendix III. Boys' Corn Clubs and Corn-Judging . 448 

Appendix IV. Tables 456 

Glossary 460 

Index .......... 463 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



FIGURE 
1. 



8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 

18. 
19. 



Frontispiece : 

Tilling the soil — the old way. 
TilHng the soil — the new way. 

The farmer sustains all 



Modern tomatoes and the originals from which they were 
developed 



The wooden plow of our early ancestors 
The "Oil Pull" gang plow . 



The old long horn and Prince Welton, champion two 
old Hereford 



year- 



Jerry Moore, the corn-club boy, and part of the 228 
bushels of corn raised by him on one acre in 1910 

Different types of so-called seeds 

An opened bean-seed that has been soaked 

Seed germinators made of two plates . 

The rag-doll germinator 

The sand-box germinator . 

The root hairs of a young radish-plant 

The root hair penetrating the soil 

The cross-section of a small root 

An easy method of studying the working of osmosis 

The method of planting seeds at different depths that their 
growth may be watched 



A young bean-plant just coming up 

A woody stem with terminal and lateral buds 



PAGE 

2 



7 
11 
12 
12 
13 
14 
17 
18 
19 
19 

20 
21 

22 



XXU ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE PAGE 

20. An easy method of catching some of the water transpired 

by a plant 25 

21. A cross-section of a leaf 26 

22. A simplified diagram to illustrate the carrying of food ma- 

terials 29 

23. A quarter of the stem of a tree 32 

24. The cross-section of a young stem 34 

25. The working of capillary attraction 36 

26. Various types of familiar cells . . . . » . 37 

27. Cell division 38 

28. Healing tissue that the plant throws out to cover a wound . 38 

29. The mass of adventitious buds thrown out by a hickory . 39 

30. Roots and stems marked so as to study growth ... 43 

31. A peach-blossom cut in two and a morning-glory ... 47 

32. The process of fertilization of the ovule by the pollen . . 48 

33. Male and female flowers of the pecan 49 

34. The manner in which insects help to fertihze some flowers . 51 

35. The effect produced by hybridization of two different kinds 

of squash 52 

36. Cotton and tomato blooms prepared for cross-fertilization . 53 

37. The crossed stigma covered with bag and labelled . . 54 

38. The wide range of variation shown in plants from seeds of the 

daisy 55 

39. Kale, cabbage, and cauliflower, and the original plant from 

which they came 57 

40. Reid's yellow dent corn 58 

41. Reproduction of blue grass by stolons .... 60 

42. The Irish potato and the enlarged underground stems or 

tubers 60 



ILLUSTRATIONS XXlll 

riGTJRB PAGE 

43. A layered tip of raspberry taking root .... 61 

44. The method of propagating grapes by layering ... 61 

45. Cuttings of rose, grape, and fig, and proper position of cut- 

ting in soil 62 

46. A rooted begonia-leaf cutting 63 

47. The method of making the whip or tongue graft ... 64 

48. The process of cleft-grafting 65 

49. A young cleft graft of pecan growing on a hickory . . 66 

50. The steps in the proper method of shield-budding . , 68 

51. The stages of ring-budding and a young ring bud growing . 69 

52. A shortened and more convenient form of standard ring- 

budding tool 70 

53. The new growth from buds placed on top of an old pecan 

which was sawed off for that purpose . . . .71 

54. Illustration of how the films of capillary water pass from 

particle to particle in the soil 81 

55. Experiment to illustrate the effect upon growth of the air in 

water 82 

56. Comparison of soil with humus and dust mulch with soil 

without either 83 

57. An inexpensive equipment for testing the water-holding 

capacity of soils 86 

58. An inexpensive equipment for testing the capillary rise of 

water in soils 88 

59. Illustration of how the dust mulch prevents the rise of water 

to the surface of the soil 89 

60. An irrigation canal on the Pecos River at Rock Cut . . 91 

61. A flowing well in Glen Rose, Texas, and a pumped well near 

Midland, Texas 94 

62. The method of laying tile drains 97 



XXIV ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE FA6XI 

63. An inexpensive home-made level with which terraces may 

be laid out 100 

64. Diagram showing amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and 

potash used by 1,000 pounds of cotton-seed and by 500 

pounds of lint cotton 107 

65. Comparison of production of corn with horse manure and 

without fertilizer ....... 108 

66. Proper and improper methods of saving manure . . .112 

67. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the cells of root tubercle of a 

legume ......... 115 

68. Tubercles on roots of soy-bean . . . . . .116 

69. Illustration to show that the limit of the crop is set by the 

most deficient food element 117 

70. The effect of the absence of nitrogen, potassium, or phos- 

phorus 121 

71. Millet grown with and without potassium chloride . . 123 

72. Comparison of production of corn grown without fertilizer 

and that grown with potassium chloride . . . 124 

73. Diagram showing yield of wheat with and without rotation 

at Rothamsted Experiment Station .... 128 

74. Effect of plowing upon the soil 136 

75. Effect of the curve of the plow 137 

76. Planting '.n wet and in dry soil 138 

77. Four types of plows 139 

78. Disk sulky plow_ 140 

79. Disk harrow 141 

80. Spike-tooth harrow 141 

81. Acme harrow . o 142 

82. Plank drag 142 

83. Fourteen- tooth harrow , . 142 



ILLUSTRATIONS XXV 

riGUHE PAGE 

84. Five-tooth harrow ....... 143 

85. Two-row sulky cultivator 143 

86. Single corn and cotton planter 144 

87. Double sulky corn and cotton planter 144 

88. Manure spreader 145 

89. Combination garden tool 145 

90. Corn shredder and silo filler in operation .... 146 

91. The use of an engine on the farm 147 

92. Cotton leaves and cotton bolls, upland and sea island . . 153 

93. Relative lengths of different varieties of cotton . . . 154 

94. Cotton-stalk thirty-three inches high 155 

95. A good stalk of cotton 156 

96. A poor stalk of cotton 157 

97. Yield of seed and lint from selected and unselected cotton- 

seed 158 

98. Field of cotton in Cherokee County, Texas . , . 159 

99. Boone County white corn and the corn from which it was 

developed 164 

100. Differences in stalks due to differences in seeds . . . 165 

101. Differences in yield of corn due to differences in seeds . . 166 

102. The results of test of fifteen ears of corn .... 167 

103. Comparative yield of five highest and five lowest yielding 

ears at Story County, Iowa, station .... 169 

104. Differences in oats due to differences in seeds . . .171 

105. The root system of corn 173 

106. Heads of milo maize and Kafir corn from near Dalworth, 

Texas 175 

107. Field of milo maize from near San Benito, Texas , . 176 



XXVI ILLUSTRATIONS 

riGXJRE 

108. Effect of bacteria on the growth of red clover 

109. Pea-nut plant from the Panhandle 

110. Gathering and stacking pea-nuts 

111. Cow-peas in corn rows in Johnson County, Texas 

112. Field of cow-peas , . . 

113. Soy-bean field 

114. An alfalfa-plant only a few months old 

115. Stem of sugar-cane 

116. Field of sugar-cane at La Feria, Texas 

117. Types of rice 

118. Five-year breeding plan for cotton or other crop 

119. Plan for a half-acre garden .... 

120. A home-made garden reel .... 

121. A home-made sled marker .... 

122. A horse cultivator for garden use 

123. An inexpensive wheel hoe .... 

124. A hot-bed 

125. Tomato-plants ready for setting in the field 

126. Handy box for use in seeding or transplanting in 

127. The right and the wrong way to set out plants wi 

128. Transplanting . . . . . 

129. Onions trimmed ready for transplanting 

130. Paper and tin shields for young plants 

131. A good layout for a half-acre school garden 

132. A good planting plan for the pupil's individual plot 
133. 



PAGE 
179 

180 
181 
183 
185 
186 
187 
194 
195 
197 
200 
207 
208 
209 
211 
212 
213 
214 
the hot-bed 214 
th a dibber 215 
216 
217 
220 
224 
224 



A view in the practice school garden at the University of 

Texas 225 



ILLUSTRATIONS XXVU 

PIGtrRE PAOB 

134. A good set of tools . . . ] 226 

135. A good showing; a happy boy 227 

136. School-boys' corn, school farm, Uvalde, Texas . . . 227 

137. A view of the school farm, Bonham, Texas .... 228 

138. Home-canned fruit on a Texas farm 237 

139. A four-year-old fig orchard at Algoa, Texas . . . 238 

140. Planting in squares 240 

141. The equilateral triangle-planting plan .... 240 

142. The effect of dynamiting upon the root system of a tree . 241 

143. Pruning nursery trees ........ 243 

144. A tree pruned to direct growth 244 

145. The right way to cut off the old stem 244 

146. The Munson system of grape culture 245 

147. A young vine that shows how grapes flourish in the South- 

west 246 

148. Clean cultivation 247 

149. Peas in the middles 247 

150. Gathering apples . 248 

151. A young fruiting pecan-tree 249 

152. Right and wrong method of cutting large limb from a tree . 250 

153. Decayed tree after and before being filled with concrete . 252 

154. School-boys grafting an apple-tree ..... 253 

155. An inexpensive cage in which to keep insects for study . . 258 

156. Effect of spraying black rot on grapes 259 

157. The Colorado potato-beetle 260 

158. The cotton-boll weevil c « « • • • . 261 



XXVlll ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURB PAGE 

159. A square punctured by boll-weevil and a weevil maturing 

within the boll 261 

160. Chart showing the spread of the cotton-boll weevil , . 263 

161. The cabbage-worm 264 

162. Nymph and empty pupa skin of grasshopper . . . 265 

163. A typical insect 266 

164. A bucket spray pump 267 

165. A barrel spraying apparatus 268 

166. A power spraying apparatus 269 

167. Apples from a sprayed tree 270 

168. The foods of some helpful birds and wild animals . . .271 

169. San Jose scale 273 

170. Lady-bird beetle 274 

171. Wheat rust 275 

172. Peach mummy caused by brown rot 276 

173. The bacteria that cause pear blight 277 

174. Spores of brown rot of peach 277 

175. Potato infected with scab, and sound potato . . . 278 

176. Ordinary cotton and Dillon wilt resistant cotton . . 279 

177. Good and bad farming 292 

178. Inferior feeder, choice feeder, and fat steer .... 295 

179. Points of the beef animal 298 

180. Wholesale cuts on the steer 301 

181. Shorthorn bull 304 

182. Champion Hereford bull 306 

183. Aberdeen-Angus bull c e 307 

184. Galloway bull 309 



ILLUSTRATIONS XXIX 

FIGURK PAGE 

185. Points of the dairy COW 311 

186. Blood supply of the udder 314 

187. Colantha Fourth's Johanna, showing typical wedge shape of 

the dairy cow 316 

188. The wedge when viewed from above or in front . . . 317 

189. Champion Jersey bull 319 

190. Jersey cow 321 

191. Guernsey cow 323 

192. Ayrshire cow 325 

193. Red polled cow 329 

194. Cattle tick depositing eggs 331 

195. Plan of ridding ranch of cattle ticks 332 

196. Pure and impure milk as they appear under the microscope . 335 

197. Progeny of a single germ in milk in twelve hours . . 336 

198. Sanitary and unsanitary pails 337 

199. Sanitary cow barn 338 

200. Cross-section of dairy barn 339 

201. Model dairy barn, Wisconsin State fair grounds . . . 340 

202. Milk-testing set 343 

203. Points of the horse 347 

204. Thoroughbred trotting horse 349 

205. APercheron 353 

206. A Clydesdale 356 

207. A five-gaited saddle-horse 358 

208. A French coach stallion 359 

209. A hackney stallion . . « 330 

210. A Belgian stalHon 361 



XXX ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE PAGE 

211. A Shire stallion 362 

212. A good team of mules 363 

213. Points of the sheep 367 

214. Mutton cuts on sheep . 368 

215. Method of judging sheep 370 

216. Method of judging sheep 371 

217. A wether in fleece . 373 

218. A wether shorn 374 

219. Good mutton type 376 

220. Types of sheep 379 

221. Types of sheep 380 

222. Angora buck 382 

223. Wholesale pork cuts on live animal 386 

224. Wholesale pork cuts on carcass 387 

225. Points of the hog 388 

226. Tamworthsow 391 

227. Lard type of hogs .393 

228. Wigwam hog cot 395 

229. Litter mates 397 

230. Eggs from the average hen and eggs from a good-laying hen 401 

231. Chicken with strong constitution and chicken with weak 

constitution 402 

232. Convenient feeding and watering devices .... 403 

233. Model chicken-house 405 

234. Sources and uses of various elements 415 

235. A one-hundred-and-sixty-acre farm poorly planned , . 428 

236. Same farm replanned 429 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE 

237. Fac-simile of page in farm diary 

238. Copy of page in farm diary 

239. Cross-sections of earth road 

240. A good road 

241. A road before and after use of split-log drag 

242. A good form of split-log drag 

243. Boys' Corn-Club exhibit .... 

244. Boys' Corn Club 

245. Boys and Girls' Milo Club 

246. A member of the canning club . 

247. An exhibit of the Girls' Canning Club's work 

248. Good butt and tip . . . ... 

249. Two excellent ears 

250. Good and poor ears 

251. Shapes of kernels 



XXXI 

PAGE 

433 
435 
440 
441 
443 
444 
448 
449 
449 
450 
451 
451 
453 
453 
454 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 
AND FARM LIFE 

CHAPTER I 
INTRODUCTORY 

1. Agriculture the Most Important of All Industries. — 
Agriculture is the most important of all industries, because 
it is the one without which none of the others could exist. 
If the farmer produced no crops everybody would starve, ex- 
cept the few who could live on wild plants and dress in ani- 
mal skins. If the farmer grew no crops the railroads would 
have practically nothing to haul, the factories would have 
practically no material out of which to manufacture their 
goods, the merchants would have practically nothing to sell, 
and nobody would have money with which to buy, the 
lawyers would have no clients who could pay them, and the 
doctors, preachers, and teachers would all have to starve 
with the rest or live like the savage. The farmer is the 
foundation of our civilization, for, when he fails to support 
them, all the other occupations fall to the ground. 

2. How Agriculture Has Developed. — Agriculture is al- 
most as old as the human race. The early savage learned 
first to eat the plants and fruits as they grew wild, and to 
catch and eat the wild animals. Then he learned to tame 
and use, that is, to domesticate (do-mes'ti-kat), the wild 

n 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



animals. These herds of domesticated animals were driven 
from place to place as the food or water supply was used up 
in one place. Later, man learned to gather the seed of wild 
plants, and to sow and cultivate patches of those plants 
that gave him food or clothing. These were planted on one 

spot till it would 
no longer yield a 
good crop, and 
then the man or 
tribe moved over 
to another spot 
and let the old 
one grow wild 
again. This is 
the way the 
savage farmed. 
Next, man 
learned that, by 
plowing the 
weeds and grass 
under and let- 
ting the land rest 
a year he could again produce a good crop on it. This is 
called the bare fallow. Then man learned that by putting 
manure on the soil he could continue to get good crops on 
the same land. Next, it was found that the planting of a 
certain kind of crop one year would make the land give a 
bigger yield of some other crop the following year. This is 
rotation (ro-ta'shiin) of crops. You will learn more about 
this when you study the lesson on crop rotation. Finally, 
man found just what the different plants were made of, and 




Fig. 2. The farmer .sustains all. 



INTEODUCTORY 3 

learned that the few ch(;micals that the growing plant takes 
out or the soil could be gathered from other places on the 
earth and put into the ground ready for the young plant to 
use in growing. These chemicals that are put into the 
ground for the plant to feed on are called fertilizers. 

3. Agriculture Enables the Earth to Support More People. 
—The earth could support only a few people when all de- 





FiG. 3. Numbers 1 and 3 represent the original tomatoes from which our 
Hue modern tomatoes, 2 and 4, have been developed. 



pended upon wild plants and animals for food. It could 
support more when cultivated as the savage cultivated it, 
or with the bare fallow; after better methods of cultivation, 
the use of manure, of fertilizers, and of crop rotation had been 
discovered, it became possible to use all the land year after 
year, and to support a great many times as many people as 
could formerly be supported. 

4. Greatest Improvements in Agriculture Have Come in 
Recent Years. — While for thousands of years a gradual 
improvement in agriculture has been going on, there has 
been an especially rapid improvement during the past hun- 
dred years, since farm matters have been studied more 
carefully. Better kinds of plants and animals have been 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 




developed, better farm 
tools invented, better 
methods of tillage dis- 
covered, new ways of 
killing crop pests learned. 

Fig. 4. The wooden plow of our early better WayS of harvest- 
ancestors. . . 

Courtesy of the U. S. Department of ing, preserving, and 

gricuture. marketing the crops, and 

dozens of other things. A good example of the way plants 
have been improved by study and careful breeding is 
found in the sugar beet. The best sugar beets in 1812 
yielded only eight pounds of sugar per hundred pounds of 
beets. So much better kinds have been bred that the 
average for the United States in 1907 was twelve and nine- 
tenths pounds of sugar per hundred pounds of beets, and an 
especially fine kind gave twenty-two pounds per hundred. 




Fig. 5. The'" Oil Pull" Gang Plow which, in a demonstration in 1911, 
with three engines, did the work of 100 men, 200 horses, and 50 plows, plowing 
14 acres an hour at a fuel cost of 6i cents per acre. 

Courtesy of the Oliver Plow Co. 





Pig. 6. The old long horn and I'rince Welton, champion two-year-old 
Hereford. 



6 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

By applying in similar manner to animals the principles of 
breeding, we have produced the big Durham and Hereford 
cattle, and the fine Jersey and Holstein cows in place of the 
little wild scrub stock, and have the fine Poland-China, 
Duroc-Jersey, and Berkshire hogs that grow as large in six 
months as the old wild hogs used to grow in six years. The 
American Indian used to cultivate his crop with a clam shell 
tied to a pole. The early settlers used a wooden plow. 
Then the iron plow was invented, then the sulky plow, 
and finally the great steam plow that opens a dozen fur- 
rows at once and at the same time grubs out the brush. 
Our grandfather thought his new iron plow, with which, 
by hard labor, he could cultivate an acre a day, was a won- 
der. Now, his grandson can ride and more easily cultivate 
fifteen acres a day with his double-row sulky cultivator. 
By methods used in 1830, it took sixty-four hours of a man's 
labor to produce an acre of wheat; in 1900 it took just two 
hours and fifty-eight minutes. Our improved methods and 
machinery enable one man to cultivate on the farm about 
what it took five to cultivate in 1850. In the same way the 
study of the last few years has taught us to stop cutting 
corn roots by deep plowing, to keep a dust mulch on the 
ground to hold in the moisture, and scores of other valuable 
lessons. 

5. Corn Made in Spite of Drought. — By using newly dis- 
covered methods of conserving the moisture in the soil, 
farmers have raised in west Texas twenty-five bushels of 
corn per acre with only one-half inch of rainfall from plant- 
ing to harvest, and forty bushels with one and a half inches 
of rain. Fifty years ago not a grain of corn could have 
been produced with that little rain. 



INTRODUCTORY 7 

6. What You Will Learn in this Course. — As we go on 
from chapter to chapter, you will learn how these things are 
done. You will also learn how to use the little bacteria 
(bak-te'ri-a), that are so small you can not see them with the 
naked eye, to gather plant food out of the air for your 




Fig. 7. Jerry Moore, the com club boy, and part of the 228f bushels 
of corn raised by him on one acre in 1910. 



plants, how to make your fields richer and richer each year, 
how to gather and market your crop to better advantage, 
how to procure for your farm home the comforts of the city 
home, with all the quiet joys of the country, too, and you 
will learn scores of other interesting and helpful things. 

7. What Dr. Knapp's Boys Have Done. — Dr. Knapp, the 
well-known government expert in agriculture who started 
our demonstration farms, corn clubs, hog clubs, and canning 



8 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

clubs, says that we can yet make the average yield from our 
land eight times what it is. This sounds impossible, but it 
is not. Right at the start, the farmers on Dr. Knapp's 
demonstration farms, by using better methods, are reported 
to have raised on the average in 1911 S5 per cent more 
cotton and 93 per cent more corn per acre than their neigh- 
bors made. The little corn club boys also have learned how 
to beat their fathers raising corn. Jerry Moore, a South 
Carolina boy, raised 228f bushels on one acre; an eleven- 
year-old Missouri boy raised 222 bushels, and an Alabama 
boy 212 bushels. In 1911 in Louisiana ten boys raised an 
average of 120^ bushels of corn to the acre, at an average 
cost of 19 cents per bushel, with an average profit of S67.70 
per acre. One boy produced 150f bushels to the acre, at 
a cost of 16i\ cents a bushel. Ira Smith, in Arkansas, 
raised 119 bushels on an acre, at a cost of only 8 cents a 
bushel; and Floyd Gaynor, a fifteen-year-old Oklahoma boy, 
raised 95 bushels to the acre, at a cost of 8 cents a bushel. 
That year was an extraordinarily hard year for corn in 
Texas, many old and successful farmers not raising an ear; 
yet thirty-one of Dr. Knapp's boys in west Texas produced 
an average of 60 bushels per acre, at an average cost of 24 
cents a bushel. Sixty-five Texas boys raised over 50 bushels 
to the acre, and eleven-year-old Johnnie Bryant raised 114 
bushels. 

8. What You Can Do.— What has been done by a few in 
corn raising can be done by every intelligent boy, not only 
with corn, but with all other crops. But to do this you 
must learn the secrets of nature, how plants grow, how they 
feed themselves from soil and air, how they are bred and 
improved, how to protect them from their enemies, how to 



INTllODUCTORY 9 

use labor-saving tools and devices, how to improve your 
soil from year to year, how to keep your stock strong and 
healthy, how to keep your farm home attractive and keep 
yourselves healtfey, happy, and eager for work, how to gather 
and market your crops, and how to keep your farm accomits 
so that you will know just which crops pay best for your 
labor and time. To learn everything about all of these is 
the work of a lifetime, or many lifetimes, but in this first 
course you will learn the most important facts and general 
principles, and will learn how to study these farm problems 
for yourselves in the future. 

QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES 

1. Do you know any one who farms now the way the savage farmed? 

2. Give an account of some one in your neighborhood who has used 

the bare fallow. Can you find out how much was produced on 
the land the year before the* fallow, and how much the yea-r 
following? 

3. Can you give an actual case of manuring land, and tell how much 

manure per acre was used, and what increase it produced in the 
crop? (Be sure that the manure caused the increase. How 
could you make sure that the manure caused the increase?) 

4. Give an actual case of some one who practises rotation, and tell 

what crops make up the rotation. Can you get any figures 
showing how much the rotation helped the land? 

5. If a farmer had more land than he could use, what would he gain 

by raising fifty bushels of corn on one acre rather than twenty- 
five bushels per acre on two acres? 

6. Name all the ways in which the people would have to get food and 

clothing if all the farms failed entirely for a year. 



CHAPTER II 



PLANT GROWTH 



9. What We Are to Learn. — You have now seen some of 
the wonderful advances that have been made in agriculture, 
and learned that still greater improvements can yet be made. 
This past progress was made possible by first learning how 
plants grew, how they got their food, and how they multi- 
plied, how they were improved by breeding, how they were 
affected by favorable and unfavorable conditions, and so 
on. Let us now learn these laws of plant growth ourselves. 
Then we shall understand the reasons for doing the things 
we now do in raising our crops, and shall be able to think out 
still better methods in the future. In this chapter you will 
learn how the plant starts from the little seed, how it gets 
strength to burst its coat, how it gets food materials from 
the earth and from the air, how it forms its different parts, 
and how each of these parts helps the plant in its growing, 
how the roots take the crude food materials from the soil, 
how this food material is carried through the stem up to 
the leaves, how it is made into plant food in the leaves and 
other parts of the plant, so that it can be used by the plant 
in building more plant substance, and then how the prepared 
food is distributed to all parts of the plant. We shall also 
learn how the plant produces a new seed or a new plant, 
and how we can by breeding and selection make this new 
plant different from and better than the old one. 

10 



PLANT GROWTH 



11 



10. The Seed. — As most farm plants are raised from seed, 
let us begin with the seed. Many so-called seeds are not 
simply seeds, but are fruits, or parts of fruits, containing 
one or more seeds. The so-called seeds vary in many ways. 
Some are large as an egg, such as the alligator-pear's; others 





Fig. 8. Different types of so-called seeds, which are in reality true seeds 
with parts of the fruit adhering. 

are smaller than the mustard-seed; some are encased in 
hard shells and hulls, like the hickory-nut; others are in- 
closed in soft pulpy substance like the orange-seed; some 
have soft down on them and float in the air, like the thistle- 
seed; while others have sharp spines like the cocklebur or 
the beggar-louse. But all seeds serve the same purpose of 
producing the new plant, and all true seeds are made up of 
three distinct parts. There is, first, an outside coat or seed- 
case, usually thin and tough, which protects the parts in- 
side. Second, there is the little embryo (em'bri-o). The 
embryo is the new plant itself, often showing plainly begin- 



12 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



nings of a stem, leaf or leaves (called plu-mule), and root 
(called rad-i-cle). Third, there is a small mass of highly 
concentrated food, on which the embryo must feed till it 

can grow roots and leaves strong 
enough to gather its own food ma- 
terials directly from the earth and 
air, and manufacture them into 
plant food. This reserve food, as it is 
called, is made up chiefly of starch, 
sugar, protein, and oil, in varying 
proportions, and is the main part 
of the nuts and grains that we 
eat. In the pecan, it is the rich 
oily meat of the nut; in corn and 
wheat it is the white starchy part 
of the grain that makes our flour 
and meal. We also eat the little 
embryo. This embryo is easy to see in corn, where we call 
it the germ. 

11. The Seed is Alive. — The dry, lifeless-looking seed is 
not a lifeless thing, like a chip of wood; but its living germ 
will never grow till the right conditions for its growth are 




Fig. 9. An opened bean- 
seed that has been soaked till 
the seed-case has softened and 
the seed begun to germinate. 
d is the cotyledon; e is the 
sprouting radicle; / is the plu- 
mule; g is the loosened seed- 
case. 




Fig, 10. This shows a seed germinator made of two plates and two 
layers of canton flannel or of blotting-paper. The cloth or paper is moistened 
thoroughly and the seeds laid between the folds. Then this is placed in one 
dish, a little water is added, and the other dish or a pane of glass used to 
cover and prevent evaporation. On the right is shown a modification of this, 
made by Inverting one deep dish in another containing water and then plac- 
ing the seeds between folds of a cloth which is placed on the bottom of the in- 
verted dish in such manner as to allow the edges of the cloth to hang down 
in the water. 



ri? 


04 


'!f 


ir 


il' 


ir 


31^ 


is' 


II' 




II" 




If 


If 






%{ 

<»•• 




ti 


-«4 



PLANT GROWTH 



13 



Fig. 11. The rag-doll 
germinator, consisting of 
a piece of canton flannel 
with a number of little 
squares, usually two or 
three inches square, 
marked on it with indeli- 
ble ink or pencil, and each 
niimbered. This is first 
moistened thoroughly, 
the seeds are laid on the 
squares, a record is made 
of what is on each square, 
and then the whole cloth 
rolled up, beginning with 
the darkly shaded part at 
the bottom. The shad- 
ing represents a damp 
sponge or rag, placed there 
to make the roll larger 
and easier to roll. When 
rolled up, the end of the 
"doll" is placed in a ves- 
sel of water, so that the 
cloth will soak up a con- 
stant supply of moisture 
for the seeds. 



supplied to it. In this state in whieh 
it is alive, but not active, it is called 
dormant (dor'mant). When the right 
conditions for growth are supplied the 
seed, it becomes active and begins to 
grow. The first growth is called gcr- 
inination (jer-mi-na'shiin) . 

12. What Starts the Seed to Grow- 
ing. — ^Take a few seeds of the bean or 
other common plant and place them in 
a seed germinator. In from six to 
twelve hours you will notice that the 
beans have absorbed some water and 
increased in size. In a short time the 
seed-case bursts and a white sprout 
appears, which is the beginning of the 
new plantlet, or little plant. The seed 
has now begun to germinate. Let us 
see under what conditions a seed will 
germinate, and under what conditions 
it will not germinate; then we shall 
know what conditions to provide in 
the soil when we plant seeds. We can 
make three experiments and find out 
for ourselves what makes a seed ger- 
minate. 

13. First Experiment. — Place six 
beans in a can of moist soil and keep 
it moist for a few days. Place six in 
a can of perfectly dry soil and keep it 
dry. When the beans in the moist soil 
have germinated, dig up those in the 



14 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

dry soil and see what they have done. If you find that the 
beans in the dry soil have not germinated, and those in the 
moist have, what does this show about water being nec- 
essary for germination? If seeds must have moisture in 




Fig. 12. The sand-box germinator, which consists of a box about four 
inches deep with lioles in the bottom for the escape of water. Ttiis is filled 
half full of sand or sawdust and a cloth is laid over this and marked into 
squares. The seeds are placed on these squares and covered first with a cloth 
the size of the box and then with a cloth which is made large enough to ex- 
tend above the top of the box all around. Then the box is filled with sand or 
sawdust, thoroughly watered and kept moist. When it is time to examine the 
seeds, the covering is lifted off by raising the top cloth without disturbing the 
seeds. If it is not desired to examine the seeds, but merely to see how well 
they germinate, the cloths are not necessary. In this case the box is laid off 
in squares by means of string tacked across the top. In cool weather the box 
may be made eight inches deep and filled with four inches of horse dung and 
then the sand placed on top of this. The manure serves to keep the box 
warm. 

Courtesy of the Department of Agriculture, University of Minnesota. 

order to germinate, then what must the farmer watch for 
and get his land and seeds ready for, so that he can make 
use of it when it comes? In the chapter on the soil, you 
will learn how to cultivate your land so as to hold the moist- 
ure in it for weeks, and by winter and early spring plough- 



PLANT GROWTH 15 

ing make It possible for your seeds to germinate even if no 
rain* should come at the planting season. 

14. Second Experiment. — Take two cans two-thirds full 
of fresh water and boil one can for ten minutes, and in this 
way drive out all the little particles of air that are naturall}- 
in the water. Then pour oil on top of this can of boiled 
w^ater till the water is covered with oil about an eighth of 
an inch thick. This film of oil will prevent any air getting 
down into the boiled water again. Now place some seeds of 
rice or water-cress in the can of boiled and oil-covered water 
that has no air in it, and the same kind of seeds in the other 
can of water that has not had the air boiled out of it. Watch 
these seeds for several days and see which ones begin to 
germinate. If you find that the seeds in the water that had 
the air boiled out of it have not started to germinate, while 
those in the water with the air still mixed in it have begun 
to germinate, what does that show to be necessary besides 
water to make seeds germinate? Beans, corn, and most 
other farm plants require more air for germination than is 
present even in fresh water. This being true, what would 
happen to these seeds if immediately after being planted 
such a long hard rain fell that the free air was all packed out 
of the soil, and the soil so filled with water that no more air 
could get down to the seeds? Ask at home if that has ever 
happened on your farm. 

15. Third Experiment. — Take two cans of moist soil and 
plant six beans in each. Put one of these where it will 
keep warm day and night, with a temperature of 60 to 
80 degrees, and place the other in the refrigerator at home, 
or out-of-doors where it will be kept cold, with a temperature 
near freezing. After three or four days examine the seeds 



16 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

in both cans and see if both are sprouting ahke. If you 
should find that the beans in the warm soil had begun to 
sprout, and those in the cold soil had not, what would this 
show to be necessary for the germination besides moisture 
and air? If seeds are planted in spring when the ground is 
still cold, what will happen? If, later in spring, after the 
ground is warm and seeds are planted, there should come a 
long, cold, rainy spell, what would happen? If the cold 
weather lasted very long after the seeds were planted, what 
would probably happen before they got a chance to ger- 
minate? Has this ever happened on your farm? 

16. Differences in Seeds. — There are great differences in 
seeds. Some require a very warm seed bed to germinate, 
such as cotton, while others, such as oats or rescue-grass, 
can germinate with much less heat. Some seeds require also 
less moisture and less air than others do. If the cold is not 
too great, many seeds will germinate in cool weather, but 
do it more slowly than when warm. Beet seeds that germi- 
nated in three days at a temperature of sixty-five degrees, 
took twenty-two days to germinate at a temperature of 
forty-one degrees. 

17. How Roots Grow. — When your bean-seed has got 
the necessary amount of heat and air and water to germi- 
nate, you will see that it first swells, and then a tiny white 
sprout bursts out of the hull between the two divisions of 
the bean. This little white sprout is called the radicle 
(radi'-kl). The word radicle is made from the Latin word 
radicula, which means a little root. As soon as it gets out 
of the seed-coat, the radicle turns down and makes its way 
into the moist soil to form the root of the plant. This root 
must gather food material from the soil for the young plant, 



PLANT GROWTH 



r 



'-m 



or the plant will starve as soon as it has used all the reserve 
food in the seed. If there is no moisture in the soil, the 
root can get no food materials from that source, for plants, 
like babies, can take in only liquids. If the ground is 
packed so hard that the tender radicle cannot force its way 
among the soil particles and come in 
contact with the little films of water 
covering these soil particles, then the 
plant can get no food materials and 
must die, or can get so little that it can- 
not grow. What does this show us that 
we must do to all seed beds before the 
seeds are sown, if we wish the young 
plants to grow? If the soil is not too 
hard, this radicle grows on down into it 
and makes the main root, or tap-root, 
as it is called, while upon its sides grow 
the branching roots called lateral (lat^- hairs on a young radish- 

^ ^l\ , Txi'ii" 11 plant. The drawing on 

er-al; roots. Lateral is also from an old the left shows the soil 
Latin word, latus, which means the side. haL.'''^^'"''^ '"^ "'' 
From the sides of both the main root and 
the lateral roots grow out thousands of little fine root hairs. 
18. What Roots Do. — Neither the tap-root nor lateral 
roots are able to take in any food material directly from 
the soil, but serve to hold the plants steady and give a 
large surface from which root hairs may grow out. These 
tiny root hairs grow out from the new growth of both the 
tap-root and laterals. Some of these hairs are too small 
to be seen with the naked eye, there being in some cases 
nearly forty thousand growing out from a square inch 
of root surface. These are so tender that they are usu- 



18 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



ally torn off when we pull a plant out of the ground, but 
you can see them easily if you will germinate corn or 
oats in a germinating-dish. Figure 13 shows the mass of 
root hairs on the roots of a young radish-plant. It is 




Fig. 14. The root hair (d) penetrating the soil, as seen under the micro- 
scope. Note the black soil particles with the films of water (6) surrounding 
them. Also note the air spaces (a) among the soil particles. Note that the 
root hair is a continuation of a single cell in the outer membrane of the root. 



through these soft root hairs that the plant takes in all the 
food material it gets from the soil. These hairs reach out 
between the particles of soil and absorb through their skin- 
like covering the water and various kinds of food materials 
that are dissolved in the water that is in the soil. This 
raw, unprepared liquid food material then passes through 
the root hairs into the roots and on through the stem up 
to the leaves to be prepared, so that the plant can make it 
into its own substance. 



PLANT GROWTH 



19 




19. How Root Hairs Take 
Food Materials. — The proc- 
ess by which the thin mem- 
brane of the root hair, which 
has no mouths or holes in it, 
lets the liquid food material 
come into the root is very 
remarkable. You can see 
this same process going on 
if you will take a lamp chim- 
ney and tie a piece of well- ^^^ ^5 The cross-section of a 
washed and softened bladder «™^^i ^«o* ^? '^ ^^^^^ZT^-fJ^^^: 

croscope. Note the root hairs (c), the 
over the end, or, better still, epidermal cells (&). and the fibi-o-vas- 

cular bundles ( a) through which the 
take a tube shaped like the liquid plant-food materials pass up to 
1 • 1 ^^^ stem and on to the leaves, 

one m Figure 16 and tie the 

bladder tightly with a waxed thread over the large end of 

this, so that it will 
hold liquid when 
poured into it. Then 
pour into the chim- 
ney, or tube, either 
molasses or strong 
brine till it is half 
full or more. Then 
fasten the chimney 
in a jar or large bot- 
tle of fresh water, so 
that the water in the 
jar is just level with 

Fig. 16. An easy method of studying the ^J^g molaSSCS Or Salt 
working of osmosis. The dilute liquid in the 

outer vessels passes into the stronger solution solution in the tubc. 
in the inner vessels in the same way that the i • p 

soil water passes into the root hairs of the plant. Leave thlS f Or an 





20 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



hour and see if the liquid inside the tube has not risen 
higher than the water level in the bottle. If it does this, 
does that show that some of the water from the bottle has 
passed through the bladder into the tube and increased 
the amount of the fluid there? This passing of a liquid 
through a membrane is called osmosis (os-mo'sis). It is 
by this process of osmosis that the 
tiny thread-like root hairs take in all 
the food materials that the plant gets 
from the ground. You see that the 
plant can take in only such food ma- 
terial as is in liquid form dissolved 
in water in the ground. When all the 
water is dried out of the ground, then 
the plant is not merely unable to get any 
water, but is unable to get what else? 
20. How the Plant Gets Its First 
Food. — We have seen now how the lit- 
tle radicle bursts out of the seed, grows 
down into the earth, forms the main 
tap-root, and throws out lateral roots, and how the tiny root 
hairs develop on the new parts of all roots, grow out among 
the soil particles, and soak up liquid food material and send 
it back into the roots. Now let us see next what the 
other parts of the seed are doing while all this is going on. 
Let us see how the plant gets ready a stem and branches 
and leaves to receive the crude food materials gathered by 
the roots, manufacture these into true plant foods, and dis- 
tribute this food to all parts of the plant. 

21. Reserve Food of Plants. — If you will watch a bean- 
seed growing in the soil, you will see that soon after the point 




Fig. 17. Shows the 
method of planting seeds 
at different depths in 
such way that tlieir 
growth may be watched. 



PLANT GROWTH 



21 



of the little radicle begins growing downward, the other 
end of the germ, which is called the plumule (plu'miil) be- 
gins to grow upward and to drag along with it the two large 
parts of the bean, which look at first as if they are thick fat 
leaves. These two thick oval 
pieces are sometimes called seed 
leaves. They do not, however, 
behave like green leaves, but are 
full of concentrated food, which 
w^as manufactured and placed in 
the seed by the parent plant. 
This food reserve supplies the 
germinating plant with nourish- 
ment until it can develop the 
root hairs, stem, and leaves to 
gather food materials and man- 
ufacture its own food. These 
thick leaf-like pads of food are 
called cotyledons (kot-i-le'duns) . 
All seeds have this reserve food 
in them, but all do not have the 
two cotyledons, nor do all plants 
draw them through the soil when 
sprouting, as do the beans. The 
grains and many others have 
only one package of reserve food 
than two cotyledons. Sometimes this reserve food, instead 
of being inclosed within a part of the embryo, is attached 
to the embryo, or may even merely surround it. As the 
plumule of the bean grows upward into a stem and the tiny 
leaves unfold and grow, you will notice that the cotyledons 




Fig. 18. A young bean- 
plant just coming up with coty- 
ledons (a) thick and full of re- 
serve food. In the centre the 
same plant a few days later is 
shown with cotyledons (&) empty 
of food and wrinkled. On the 
right is a young plant that has 
been stunted in its growth by 
the removal of the cotyledons 
too early, thus depriving it of its 
reserve food. 



A few plants have more 



22 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



get thinner and thinner, and after several days shrivel up, 
and after a week or so more fall off. Can you see why this 
happens? 

22. How the Plant Develops Stem, Branches, and Leaves. 
— The way the stem of this young plant, or seedling, as it is 
called, grows is interesting. If you will take a bean that 
is just out of the ground, or one that has just 
begun to grow in the germinator, and will put 
marks in water-proof ink every eighth of an 
inch along the stem, and then look at these 
same marks twenty-four to forty-eight hours 
afterward, you will see that some parts of this 
stem are growing much faster than others. 
The most rapidly growing part is just behind 
the tip and is called the growing point. The 
stem elongates most rapidly just back of the 
growing point. This growing point grows rap- 
woody stem idly upward, forming the stem, and soon leaves 
m^n^aitfudand ^^^ branches bud out on the side. These side 
several lateral branches are called lateral branches. The bud 

buds. 

on the end is called the terminal (ter'mi-nal) 
bud. This word terminal is made from another Latin word, 
terminus, which means the end. If you will open up care- 
fully and examine the growing tips of main stems and lat- 
erals of some woody plant, you will see that on the outside 
there are close-fitting scale-like modified leaves, called bud 
scales, which protect the tender growing point and the tiny 
undeveloped leaves within. As these leaves begin to grow 
and the growing point pushes out, the protecting scales 
are burst, and the new leaf or leaves unfold and grow, 
while the growing point pushes on. With herbaceous (her- 




PLANT GROWTH 23 

ba'shus) plants like the bean, the growth is similar, except 
that there are no protecting bud scales. 

23. Peculiar Ways of Growing. — Each variety of plant has 
its own peculiar way of growing; some stems stand erect, 
as the oak; some lean on other things, as does the grape- 
vine, and some lie flat on the ground, as do the melon vines. 
Some send out leaves and branches in pairs, opposite each 
other, at regular intervals along the stem; some have their 
leaves come out singly, first on one side and then on the 
other side of the stem and branches; some come out on all 
sides at the same level, and some in yet other ways. Why 
some plants always act one way, and others another, we do 
not as yet fully understand. That question is not important 
for us; but why any plant grows at all, and just how it 
manages to do so, is most important to know if we expect 
ever to grow crops. In order to understand how the stem 
can elongate and throw out these leaves, we must look in- 
side the plant and see first how it is constructed and just 
how it gets its food and makes out of it the new leaves, stem, 
branches, and other things. By studying this one step at 
a time it will soon all be plain. 

24. How the Plant Gets Crude Food Material.— You 
know now that the bean has leaves, branches, stem, roots, 
and root hairs. Practically all plants dealt with on the 
farm have these same parts. Each part has its own work 
to do for the good of the whole plant, including itself. We 
are now ready to see how each of these parts of the plant 
helps the plant to get food and grow. You w^ill remember 
that the roots are covered with root hairs, which by osmosis 
take in the food materials that are dissolved in the water 
in the ground. In addition to this, these root hairs, by the 



24 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

small amount of acid that they give out, dissolve some of 
the substance of the soil itself, which is then taken up by 
the water present and absorbed by the root hair. The whole 
plant is made up of a mass of small cells similar to the root- 
hair cells, in having a membrane surrounding them, but 
differing from each other in size, shape, and other ways. 
The liquid food material, once inside the root-hair cell, 
passes on into the adjoining cells by osmosis through the 
cell membrane, just as it passed from the soil to the root 
hair. From these root cells it is passed through tiny tubes 
extending in sections up through the stem and branches out 
into the ribs and veins of the leaves, and finally is spread 
out into all the tissues of the leaf. The leaf is a wonderful 
kitchen and chemical laboratory combined for the plant. 
Here in the leaf the plant does some things that no man 
has yet been intelligent enough to learn how to do. Here 
the crude food material that is drawn up from the soil 
through the root hairs, roots, and stem is mixed with other 
material taken from the air, and new foods are made that 
are sent back all over the plant to build up its tissues and to 
store reserve food. A little later we shall look at the struct- 
ure of the stem and see by what means it carries the sap 
back and forth, up and down the plant at the same time. 

25. What Crude Food Material is Made Of. — Let us now 
see what the crude food material is made of, what it is changed 
into in the leaves, and how this is done. The raw food 
material that comes up from the roots is in large part water, 
and that taken in by the leaves is a gas that is free in the 
air. The plant manufactures its food mainly out of water 
and this free gas which is called carbon dioxide (kar'bon 
di-6ks'id). The plant, however, cannot live on these alone. 



1 



PLANT GROWTH 



25 




Dissolved in the water taken in by the plant are a number 
of different food materials. If this food material were not 
dissolved in a liquid form, it could not pass through the 
roots and stem up to the leaves to be made into foods and 
then pass back over the entire plant 
to feed all the parts as it does. 
There are just a few of these sub- 
stances in the soil that plants make 
their foods from, and all plants and 
animals use practically the same 
ones, but in different combinations 
and proportions. You will learn 
the names of these in your lessons 
on the soil. When the crude food 
material reaches the leaves, a part of 
the water is used by the plant in 
making the plant food, which is 
later made into new plant sub- 
stance. The larger part passes out 
of the plant in the form of vapor, 
mainly through openings in the leaf. 
This giving off of water vapor by 
the plant is called transpiration 
(tran-spi-ra'shiin) . 

26. How the Plant Gives Off Water. — Transpiration goes 
on all the time, but most rapidly when the air is dry and the 
sun is shining on the leaf. You can catch some of the water 
transpired by a plant if you will follow the directions given 
under Figure 20. In Figure 21 you can see the structure 
of a leaf as it appears under the microscope, and can see 
the openings through which the greater part of the water 



Fig. 20. An easy meth- 
od of catching some of the 
water transpired by the 
plant. The card-board is 
slitted and fitted closely 
around the plant, and then 
the glass is turned over the 
plant so that very little of 
the water vapor given off by 
the plant can escape. Soon 
the air is so saturated with 
this transpired water vapor 
that it is deposited in drops 
on the inside of the glass. 



26 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



passes out of the leaf. The amount of water passed off from 
a plant is surprising. In this way a full-grown apple-tree will 
give off about two hundred and fifty pounds of water in a 
day, or over thirty-five thousand pounds during one growing 
From three hundred to five hundred pounds of 



season. 




'f e \d 



Fig. 21. A cross-section of a leaf as it would look under the microscope. 
Note (1) the outside layer of epidermal cells (a) on top and bottom; (2) the 
stoma (c) through which the water vapor mainly passes off and the air passes 
in; (3) the green chlorophyl bodies (6) ; (4) the water-tubes {d) through which 
the crude food materials come up; and (5) the phloem (/) through which the 
digested food passes back over the plant. 



water pass through and out of the ordinary plant for every 
pound of dry matter left in it. Of the material left in the 
growing plant, very little is solid matter. Often as mu^n as 
nine-tenths is still water. This is why green plants weigh 
s, much more than dried ones do. Corn, for example, at 
roasting-ear season is over eighty per cent water. 

27. Ho-7 the Plant Makjs Starch and Sugar. — While the 
excess water is being transpired out of the leaf, the leaf is 
taking in from the air Uie carbon-dioxide gas, one part of 



PLANT GROWTH 27 

which supplies the material that will make up fully half of 
the solid matter of the plant. This material is carbon, 
which we can see left as charcoal when wood is burned 
without sufficient air. All this solid carbon then comes 
out of the air in the form of a gas and not from the soil 
at all.* The leaf has special little openings through which 
to take in the carbon dioxide and give off water. These are 
mainly on the under side of the leaf, and are so small that 
the naked eye cannot see them. Figure 21 shows you how 
these look under a microscope. They are called stomates 
(sto'mats), or stomata (sto'ma-ta). One of them is called 
a stoma (sto'ma), which is an old Greek word meaning 
mouth. The under side of an apple leaf has more than one 
hundred thousand of these stomata to each square inch. 
When this carbon dioxide from the air comes into the leaf 
it is united there with the water brought up from the roots. 
Water is made up of two substances, called hydrogen 
and oxygen. When this water is united with the carbon of 
the air, it makes a new compound of carbon, hydrogen, and 
oxygen, called a carbohydrate (kar-bo-hi'drat). The two 

* It may puzzle you to see how an invisible gas can contain a solid 
thing like carbon, but, if you will remember what you know about 
water, you will see that the same substance can exist in the form of 
either a gas, a liquid, or a solid. Cool water below thirty-two degrees 
and it becomes a solid called ice. Heat it above 212 degrees and it 
becomes a gas called steam. If you could run a strong current of 
electricity through a vessel of water, you would see that this hquid 
could be broken up into two gases, one called oxygen (6ks'I-j6n) and the 
other called hydrogen (hl'dr6-j6n). In like manner the chemist can 
put two gases, hydrogen and oxygen, together in the proper manner 
and form a liquid — water. You see, then, that the same substance 
may exist as a liquid, a solid, or a gas; and, out of a liquid compound a 
gas may be taken, or out of a gaseous compound a sohd may be taken. 
Such changes and such making and breaking up of compounds are 
going on constantly in nature. 



28 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

important carbohydrates made in the leaf by uniting 
the carbon from the air with the hydrogen and oxygen 
brought up in the form of water from the soil are starch 
and sugar. 

28. The Plant Both Makes and Digests its Food.— This 
making of starch and sugar by the plant out of carbon, 
hydrogen, and oxygen is quite a different thing from diges- 
tion of foods by men and other animals. It is not digestion 
at all, but manufacture of food. This manufacturing of 
foods no animal can do. Man and all animals are dependent 
upon the plants for the manufacturing of all their foods. 
We eat these prepared foods when we eat plants or eat 
animals that live on plants. Then we have to digest these 
prepared foods. The plant can manufacture its own foods 
from the crude food materials in the soil and air, and then 
later it, too, has to digest this food before it can turn it into 
new plant substance, in a way very similar to that by which 
man digests these same foods. 

29. How the Plant Turns Starch into Sugar. — In most 
plants the main part of these carbohydrates in the leaf first 
appears in the form of little starch grains, but as these cannot 
be dissolved in water they cannot be taken up in the sap 
and passed back from the leaf down the stem into the roots 
and other parts of the plant to feed it. The leaf then has 
to digest this starch, or turn it into a form in which it can 
be dissolved in the sap of the plant and passed around, just 
as we have to digest food in our stomach and intestines 
before it can pass into our blood and be carried in our blood 
over our body to feed every part. The starch is therefore 
now turned into sugar, which is dissolved by the watery 
sap in the leaf. In this form it is passed back along through 



PLANT GROWTH 



29 



the inner bark down the stem and branches to every part of 
the plant. 

30. How the Plant Uses Carbohydrates. — This sugar 
food is used in many ways by the plant. Some is later 
changed back into starch, some is modified by the addition 
or subtraction of certain things 
and made into oil, and into 
another very important set 
of compounds which we shall 
study later. A part of these 
products are used by the plant 
in growing, in building new 
buds, leaves, stem, and roots; 
a part is deposited in seed as 
reserve food to start a new set 
of plants growing; and a part 
is deposited as reserve food 
within the plant itself for fut- 
ure use. The peach-trees, for 
instance, must deposit each 
year enough reserve food to 
support them next spring, 
while putting out their blos- 
soms and getting their leaves started and developed enough 
to commence again the manufacture of food out of the raw 
food materials sent up in the sap from the roots. You can 
often taste the plant sugar in the sap that is passing down 
the inner bark of a tree. It is this sweet sap of the maple- 
tree that is caught and boiled down to make maple-syrup 
and maple-sugar. The tuber of the potato is largely a mass 
of reserve starch, put there by the plant for future use. 




very much simpli- 
fied diagram to illustrate roughly 
how the crude food materials are 
carried up the layer of outer new 
wood, and the digested plant food 
is brought back down the phloem 
just outside the cambium layer. 
Adapted from Stevens's "Introduc- 
tion to Botany." 



30 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

This shows very briefly and incompletely the way the plant 
takes its raw liquid food material from the soil, passes it up 
the stem to the leaves, and there adds material taken from 
the air and makes up new compounds which are dissolved 
again in the sap and passed back down the stem and around 
to every part of the plant. To tell all the details of the 
work done by the plant in getting its food would take a 
long time and confuse your mind now. All of this you 
can learn later. There are just two more very important 
points that you should know more about now: first, that 
there is a special substance in the leaf that helps to make 
the starch and sugar for the plant; and second, what that 
other very important set of food compounds is which the 
plant makes. These two things we shall now learn about. 
31. How Leaf Green Helps the Plant Manufacture Food. 
— In Figure 21 you will see that the leaf has within its 
cells some little bodies called chlorophyl (klo'ro-fil) bodies. 
When exposed to sunlight these bodies develop in them a 
green substance called chlorophyl. It is this which gives 
the green color to the leaves. If the plant gets no light, 
this chlorophyl does not develop. That is why plants 
grown out of the light are pale. It is the action of this 
chlorophyl and the sunlight which splits the water and the 
carbon dioxide to pieces in the leaf, and makes possible the 
formation of the new compound, the carbohydrate, out of 
the carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen set free. Without chlo- 
rophyl and sunlight, then, the ordinary plant could manu- 
facture no carbohydrate. As we shall see later that all 
other plant foods are made by changing or adding to these 
carbohydrates, it is plain that the whole growth of the plant 
is dependent upon this action of the chlorophyl and sun- 



PLANT GROWTH 31 

light in the leaves. There are certain plants that have other 
ways of getting carbohydrates, and all plants can make a 
little in green parts outside their leaves, but the ordinary 
farm plant gets practically all its carbohydrates from the 
action of sunlight and chlorophyl in the leaves. 

32. How the Plant Builds New Living Gubstance. — While 
the chlorophyl bodies are helping part of the carbon taken 
from the air by the leaf to join with the water and make 
carbohydrates for the plant, a part of these carbohydrates 
is being combined with a substance called nitrogen (ni'tro-jen) 
and some of the other substances that we saw are also in the 
sap which comes up from the roots. The new compound 
W'hich is made by this process is called j^rotein (pro'te-in). 
There are many kinds of proteins, mado in dl.Terent parts of 
different plants. This protein is carried along with the 
carbohydrates in the sap to all parts of tlie plant, and helps 
to nourish the plant protoplasm (pro'to-plazm), which is 
found in every living part of the plant. Protoplasm is the 
most wonderful substance in the world, for it is the basis of 
all plant and animal life. When the plant is growing, the 
protoplasm is in an active state; when the plant is dormant, 
the protoplasm is still there, but it is not active. When the 
parent plant forms a seed, a small portion of the protoplasm 
of the old plant goes into the seed. When the seed germi- 
nates and grows, this protoplasm grows; and w-henever 
a cell of the plant divides and thus forms a new cell, the 
protoplasm in the old cell divides and part goes into the 
new cell. If it did not do this, the new cell could not live. 
This protoplasm likewise cannot live and continue to grow 
in the cells unless the plant has protein. Thus, you see, 
the plant cannot live without nitrogen and the other sub- 



32 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 









y 



5a 



stances brought up from the soil. If you will strip the 
green bark from a tree or bush and run your hand over the 
inside of the bark, you will feel the thin, slippery film which 

is a mixture of sap and proto- 
plasm that is spilled from the 
broken cells there. 

33. The Layers of the Stenio 
— We have seen that raw liquid 
food material is passed up the 
stem to the leaves, that it is 
then mixed with the raw tood 
material taken from the air, 
and then this newly prepared 
food is passed back down the 
stem and out to the various 
parts of the plant. Let us now 
see how the stem is constructed 
so as to make possible this proc- 
ess. Figure 23 shows you one- 
fourth of the stem of a tree cut 
crosswise. You will notice that 
first on the very outside of the 
stem is a hard outer bark (a), 
and at the centre are rings of hardwood (/). The hard 
outer bark is dead, and the central hardwood has prac- 
tically no share in carrying the sap. The tough outer bark 
serves to protect the delicate inner bark, and the dense 
hard centre, or heart, of the tree serves mainly to strengthen 
the stem so that it can hold the great masses of leaves and 
young branches up to catch sunlight and air. At one time 
this heart wood was composed of active cells through which 



Fig. 23. A quarter of the stem 
of a tree. Some of the details are 
exaggerated for the sake of clearness. 
a represents the rough dead outer 
bark, 6 the dead fibrous inner bark, 
and c the cambium layer. The 
phloem is not represented, but is just 
outside the cambium and on the 
inner surface of & ; d represents the 
layer of new wood, and / the nu- 
merous annular rings of old wood. 
The medullary rays going from the 
centre to the bark are not plain, 
though traces of them are seen, espe- 
cially at e. 



PLANT GKOWTH 33 

the sap passed, but as the plant became older these cells 
became clogged with various substances which rendered 
them inactive. Often you can see a tree in which this central 
part has become diseased and rotted away, leaving only the 
bark and the new outer part of the growing wood standing. 
Such trees may continue to grow, because the layers that 
pass the food supply up and down the tree are still active. 
Looking again at Figure 23, you will see that next to the 
rough outer bark, there is an inner fibrous bark (b), also 
dead, but inside this is a thin layer of soft bark, too thin to 
show well in this cut. Just at the boundary line between 
the bark and the wood is a very thin compact layer (c), called 
the cambium (kam'bi-iim) . Just inside the cambium is the 
layer of soft sappy new wood (d). When you peel the 
bark off a young sapling, the split occurs at the cambium. 
The soft new wood is left on the sapling, the watery cam- 
bium is split, and the soft inner bark is left inside the hard 
bark. The soft inner bark, the cambium, and the ring of 
soft new wood are the three important layers concerned in 
growth and are the ones we shall study. The raw sap 
coming up from the roots to the leaves usually and mainly 
passes up tubes in the new wood, and the prepared food 
passes down tubes in the soft new bark. This being true, 
what would be the result if you cut through the bark of a 
tree down to the cambium all the way round, but did not 
cut into the new wood? What different result would fol- 
low if you cut on through the new wood all around? 

34. How the Crude Food Material Passes Up the Stem 
and How the Prepared Food Passes Down. — You remember 
that the liquid food material passes from the soil into the 
root hair cells by osmosis, and then passes on in by osmosis 



34 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 




through other cells till it reaches some tiny tubes which 
conduct the liquid up through the layer of new wood from 
the root to the leaf. The exact make-up of these tubes is 
too complicated to go into here. We only need to know 
that they are made of a special type of elongated cells 
which by overlapping and fitting end to end afford an easy 
line of passage through the new wood for the up-going sap. 

In a similar way, there are 
special elongated cells in 
the soft inner bark which 
make up a series of tubes 
through which the pre- 
pared food, or elaborated 
(e-lab'o-ra-ted) sap as it 
is called, comes back from 
the leaves and is distrib- 
uted over the plant. These 
tubes are not evenly dis- 
tributed through the new wood and bark, but occur in groups 
or bundles that are called fibro-vascular (fi-bro-vas'kti-lar) 
bundles. These vascular bundles show plainest in a young 
stem. Figure 24 shows how these look in the year-old stem 
of the Dutchman's Pipe cut crosswise. The drawing is not 
complete, and is exaggerated in some respects to make the 
matter clearer. You see the young bark (e) with the tough 
layer of fibres in it (6), and, inside this, the thin cambium 
layer (c). The seven fibro-vascular bundles are seen lying, 
each one with part of its tubes just outside the cambium 
and part just inside (a to w). The tubular part of the fibro- 
vascular bundle that is outside the cambium in the soft 
inner bark, and through which the prepared food is con- 



Fig. 24. The cross-section of a young 
stem, e represents the outer layer of bark ; 
6 the layer of tough fibres in the bark; 
c the cambium. Seven fibro-vascular 
bundles are shown lying across the cam- 
bium, with the phloem at a and xylem 
at w. — After Bergen and Caldwell. 



PLANT GROWTH 35 

ducted, is called the iMoem (flo'em), and that inside the 
cambium in the layer of new wood and through which 
the crude food material passes up is called the xylem 
(zllem). 

35. Movements of the Sap. — Unfortunately, the circula- 
tion of the sap is not so simple as this account makes it, 
nor are all the vascular bundles situated exactly as these 
are shown, but this gives a rough, general idea of the usual, 
main flow of sap. It differs in different types of plants. 
In addition to the flow up the xylem and down the phloem, 
there is some passage constantly going on from cell to cell 
in all directions by osmosis, and at times some prepared 
food gets into the xylem, and likewise some raw food material 
gets into the phloem. For instance, in early spring reserve 
prepared food rushes up in the xylem to start new leaves, 
and the sap also regularly passes in and out from centre 
to outside of the stem through passages in the medullary 
(med'iil-la-ry) rays that are shown in Figure 23. Again, 
food has at times to pass up the phloem as well as down. 
All this you will learn about later. Now we need to keep 
in mind especially that the main general flow of raw food 
materials is up to the leaves through the tubes of the fibro- 
vascular bundles in the new wood, and the main general 
flow of prepared food is from the leaves back down the 
phloem in the inner soft bark. 

36. What Forces the Sap Up the Stem. — The next ques- 
tion is. What forces the sap up the stem along these tiny 
tubes in the fibro-vascular bundles? Where these tubes 
have joints in them at the junction of two cells, the fluid 
passes by the same process of osmosis by which it passed 
into the root hair. In addition to this, three other forces 



36 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FAKMINd 



are working. First, the outer cells of the root become filled 
with fluid by osmosis. Their membranes are stretched and 
they press in on the cells inside them and tend by this root 
pressure, as it is called, to force the fluid out of the roots 
and up the tubes. Second, the water is being evaporated 
out of the leaf constantly at the top of the tubes, and this 
produces a sort of suction which helps to draw the water 
up the tubes. Third, these tubes are 
exceedingly fine, so fine that they are 
called capillary (kap'il-la-ry) tubes. 
This is from the I.atin word capillus, 
which means a hair. In all such fine 
tubes there is a force called capillary 
attraction, which tends to force liquid 
to climb up higher and higher on the 
sides of these tubes. Figure 25 shows 
you how you may see this force work- 
ing in a glass tube. It is this same 
capillary attraction which causes the 
oil to rise in the fine tubes produced 
in a lamp-wick by the closely twisted cotton fibres. You 
will see later that this force is very important for you to 
keep in mind, for capillary attraction not only helps to cir- 
culate the sap in the plant, but helps also to circulate the 
water in the soil. By understanding this law, you can 
learn to keep the water in the soil and save your crops 
from drought. 

We have obtained a general idea of how the plant gets 
its food and passes it round to make growth possible. Now 
let us see just how the well-fed plant goes about increasing 
its size and adding new stem, branches, and leaves. 




Fig. 25. The working 
of capillary attraction in 
tubes of different diam- 
eters. 



PLANT GROWTH 



37 






37. How the Stem Increases Its Size. — You have learned 
that the plant is made up of a mass of little cells of various 
shapes and sizes. All plants and all animals are made up 
of such cells. Some of these cells are so small that many 
thousand laid end to end 
would not extend an inch. 
Figure 26 shows you how 
some single cells look under 
a powerful microscope. The 
growth of a plant (or animal) 
is brought about by the cells 
of the plant dividing and 
each thus forming two new 
cells and then each cell grow- 
ing large, dividing again, and 
so on. Not all cells in a 
plant are doing this, but the 
cells in the cambium layer 
surrounding the woody part 
of the stem and the cells in 
the growing point on the end 
of the stem, which might be 
thought of as the cambium on 
the end, are, during the grow- 
ing season, rapidly dividing, 
division then develop, and thus increase the length and 
thickness of the stem. It is then, in this cambium layer, 
which has such a rich food supply, that the cells divide and 
produce the new cells which increase the thickness of the 
tree. On the inside new wood cells are formed next to the 
wood cells alreadv there, and on the outside new bark cells 



//r 



h 
^ 






•••••, 



Fig. 26. Various types of famil- 
iar single cells, the tliree above being 
different types of cells met with in 
any ordinary plant, while those below 
are common types of bacterial cells. 



These new cells formed by 



38 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



next to the bark already there. These cells tend slightly 
by elongation to lengthen the stem also, but the main 
lengthening comes from the addition of new cells by divi- 





FiG. 27. This shows in a very condensed form how the single cell divides. 
This division of cells followed by an increase in size of the young cell is the 
process by which all plants and animals grow. 

sion at the growing point on the end, and by elongation 

of cells just back of the growing point. 
38. Outer Bark and Inner Cells. — ^As the new cells are 

added to bark and wood, and the stem thus enlarged, the old 

outer bark is burst by the pressure. The new bark will later 

be burst by the addition 
of still newer cells, and 
thus the rough dead outer 
bark with its deep cracks, 
which we see on old trees, 
is gradually formed. A 
layer of large new cells 
is developed during the 
rapid-growing season, 
and one of small cells 
during the slow-growing 
season. This makes 
part of the wood more 
dense than the other 
part, and in this way are 




Fig. 28. This shows the healing tissue 
that the plant is throwing out to cover the 
wound made by sawing oflf a small limb. 
At b is represented a longitudinal section, 
showing the masses of healing tissue (d) 
thrown out by the cambium. At c the 
same plant is shown with the bark per- 
fectly healed and the wound covered com- 
pletely by new wood and bark. 



PLANT GROWTH 



39 



formed the rings 
which we see 
w^hen a tree is cut 
crosswise. These 
rings each repre- 
sent a season of 
uctive growth, 
and, as this usu- 
ally happens only 
once a year, they 
are called annular 
(an'nu-lar) rings, 
from the Latin 
word annuSjWhich. 
means a year. By 
counting these 
rings it is usually 
possible to tell how 
old the tree was 
when cut down. 
In plants that 
have no cambium 
layer, of which we 
speak later, there 
would, of course, 
be found no an- 
nular rings. 

39. How the Plant Heals Wounds. — This same cambium 
layer which forms the new cells for regular growth has the 
power of doing two other things that are of the greatest 
importance in the life of the plant. First, when a plant is 




Fig. 29. The mass of adventitious buds thrown 
out by a hickory that has been cut off with the pur- 
pose of later budding these young sprouts with fine 
varieties of pecans. A large number of the new 
branches here have been cut off. 



40 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

wounded the cambium layer produces a healing tissue which 
soon fills up and heals over the wound with new growth 
unless the wound is very large. Even then the plant may 
for years steadily fill in the wounded places by a constant 
building in of new tissue. This is a very important matter 
that you will learn more about when you study pruning, 
budding, and grafting. All budding and grafting are made 
possible by this power of the cambium layer to make heal- 
ing tissue and fill up cuts and unite two separated surfaces. 

40. How the Plant Saves its Life. — The other thing that 
the cambium layer does, which often saves the life of a plant, 
is to form new buds. At times a tree or other plant gets 
broken, or cut off back to a single stem, below which there 
are no branches or buds. In this case, and at times in less 
serious cases, new buds are formed in the cambium layer. 
These buds force themselves out through the bark and thus 
give the plant a new set of lateral branches on which are 
again developed the leaves, which the plant must have to 
gather and digest its food. These new buds formed in an 
emergency in the cambium layer are called adventitious 
(ad-ven-tish'iis) buds. The clusters of sprouts that grow out 
on a sawed-ofi^ tree trunk are partly from adventitious buds 
and partly from ordinary buds that were before dormant. 

41. Plants That Have No Cambium Layer. — In a great 
many of our farm plants there is no definite area of growth 
or cambium layer, nor does the sap circulate through cer- 
tain layers, as with the kinds of plants we have studied. 
The raw food material passes up through vascular bundles 
that are irregularly distributed throughout the stem, and 
the food passes back down through difi^erent tubes in the 
same bundles. If you will break a corn-stalk and pull it 



PLANT GROWTH 41 

apart, you will see these vascular bundles appear as long, 
tough fibres, pulling out of the pith. In this class of plants 
are all the grasses, including corn and small grain, which 
are merely grasses grown primarily for their seed. It is an 
interesting fact that all these plants without the definite 
cambium layer have only one cotyledon. Plants with one 
cotyledon, such as com and cane, that do not have the 
special cambium layer, cannot heal cuts in themselves in 
the same way that plants do which have the cambium layer, 
nor can they develop new adventitious buds and save them- 
selves if they are broken or cut off below the terminal bud. 
For the same reason such plants cannot be grafted or budded. 

QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES 

7. Name some seeds having down on them; some that have wings 

on them. What purpose do down and wings serve the seeds? 

8. Name some seeds having hooks or spines on them. What purpose 

do hooks or spines serve the seeds? 

9. Germinate beans and corn in a germinator, cut them open and 

point out the seed-case, the reserve food, and the embryo in 
each. What is the difference in the way the reserve food is 
stored in these two? 

10. Find out how long each of the following seeds will remain dormant 

without losing its vitality: cotton, corn, wheat, oats, alfalfa, 
peas, pea-nuts. (See the Appendix.) 

11. If the tiny soft root hairs take in all the food materials for the 

plant from the soil, what happens to the plant when it is torn 
out of the soil and replanted in another place? In what ways 
does the plant show the effects of this? When the transplanted 
plant gets plump again and begins to grow, what do you know 
must have taken place down on the roots? 

12. If the root hairs which take in the water and food materials grow 

mainly at the tips of the roots and on the new roots, where 
should you put water or manure for a large tree — near the trunk 
of the tree or farther out? Why so? 



42 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

13. Which is the better in transplanting, to pull the plant and roots 

out of the ground, or to take up the roots together with the soil 
surrounding them and put both the soil and roots into the new 
place? Why is it best to do as you say? 

14. Take a pan of water and put it on the fire and watch it closely. 

What makes the little bubbles that you see forming in the 
water and coming to the top before the water gets hot enough 
to boil? Where was this air before the water was heated? 

15. Take a glass or jar of water and gently put into it some lumps of 

soil. As the water goes into the pores of the lumps of soil and 
fills them, what happens that proves the soil has air in it? 

16. Let us see in which direction the liquid always passes in osmosis. 

Could it pass out of the root hair into the soil instead of from 
the soil into the root hair? Take one ounce of saltpetre and 
dissolve it in a pint of water. This solution is stronger than 
the sap in a potato. Call this solution one. Take one-eighth 
of an ounce of saltpetre and dissolve it in a gallon of water. 
Call this solution two. This solution is weaker than the sap in 
a potato. Now cut some slices of Irish potato, about one- 
eighth inch thick, and put some of these in solution one and 
some in solution two. Osmosis can go on through the cell walls 
of a potato just as it does through the membrane of a root hair. 
Look at these potato chips after a while and see if both lots 
are still plump, or if one is plump and full of water and the 
other is limp, and some of the water has passed out of it into 
the solution. Did the juice pass out to the weaker or to the 
stronger solution? 

17. When we pour strong salt water around a plant and it wilts, what 

has happened? How could you revive it? Try it and see if 
it will revive. 

18 Sprout a bean or grain of corn between blotting-paper or cloth and 
mark the root lightly with water-proof ink at intervals of one- 
eighth of an inch. Replace it in the germinator and watch the 
growth of the root to see what part of the root grows most. 
Then mark in the same way the stem of a young bean that has 
just sprouted out of the soil and see if the stem grows in the 
same manner as the root grows. 

19. Fill a jar with good, moist, loose soil and, as you fill it, plant against 
the side of the jar, so that they can be seen from the outside, 
five grains of corn, one at one inch from the top, one at two, one 



PLANT GROWTH 



43 



at three, one at four, and one at five inches. Keep the soil 
moist and watch the grains from day to day, making notes of 
the process of germination as you see the grains through the 
glass. Through how many inches of soil can the corn-plant 
grow when depending upon the reserve food alone? 

20. Plant a dozen each of radish, bean, and other seeds in moist soil; 

cover with soil and press down the soil on the seeds. Plant the 

same number of 

seeds at the same 

time in the same 

soil alongside these 

seeds, only cover 

these loosely with 

soil. Note which 

seeds come up first, 

those packed or 

those not packed. 

Why do these come 

up sooner than the 

others? (Remember 

what the seed 

must get before it 

can germinate.) 

21. Remove a half-grown 

oat-plant and a 
wheat-plant from 
the earth with a 
shovel, taking up 

with each a large amount of the soil still in position. Then soak 
this soil in water and wash it away by pouring over it gently 
a stream of water. When the roots and root hairs are clean, ex- 
amine them carefully and see what they are like. Note if there 
are any differences in the roots of the wheat and the oat. 

22. Germinate a bean-seed in the earth and keep a daily record telling 

when it was planted, the condition of soil and temperature, 
when it appeared above ground, and what it did each day for 
ten days. Make drawings every three days. 

23. Plant six bean-seeds. When they come up clip both cotyledons 

off two plants, one cotyledon off two, and leave two un- 
touched. Note the results. 




Fig. 30. At the left, in each case, the root 
and stem marked so as to study ho'.v each 
grows. On the ri^ht, the separation of the 
figures shows the result of growth. 



44 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

24. Draw a cross-section of a stem, showing where each part that we 

have studied is situated. 

25. Plant three bean-seeds in good soil in each of three small cans or 

pots. As soon as they germinate, put one in a dark closet or 
box, one in the room near a window, and one out in the open 
sunlight. From day to day make a note of the results. Can 
you tell what makes each plant behave as it does? 

26. Explain why it is that when an old field grows up thickly with 

trees the weeds and grasses that were before in the field die 
out. 

27. Place a glass jar over a plant that is growing in a can or pot, and 

after twenty-four hours note the drops of water deposited on 
the inside of the jar. Where does this water come from? 

28. Remove the jar from the plant mentioned in No. 27, and water the 

plant well. Then cover the top of the can or pot with card-board 
cut to fit closely, or with several folds of cloth, so as to largely 
prevent the water from evaporating from the surface of the soil. 
Now weigh the plant, pot and all. Weigh it again next day. 
Why does it weigh less now? Find out the amount of water 
lost when the plant sits for ten hours in the sun, and then the 
amount lost during ten hours in darkness. Why is less lost 
during darkness? 

29. Plants often wilt in sunshine and look plump again the next morn- 

ing. What effect has this wilting on transpiration? Why? 

30. If there are forty-eight full-grown apple-trees on an acre of land, 

how many gallons of water will be transpired by them in a season? 
It takes eight pounds to make a gallon. 

31. Weigh six good-sized corn-stalks. Then hang these in the air till 

thoroughly dry and weigh again. What per cent of the corn- 
plant was water? 

32. Where do trees get the food with which to put out new leaves each 



sprmg 



33. If a tree stored all its reserve food in an extra large crop of seed 

this year, what would it have to start growing with next year 
before it got its leaves? Did you ever know of a tree killing 
itself in this way? 

34. Why do young sprouts come out from the roots of certain trees 

when they are cut down? 

35. How does girdling trees the year before cutting them down pre- 

vent the roots sending up sprouts afterward? 



PLANT GROWTH 45 

36. How do potatoes manage to sprout and grow on the Hoor without 

being planted? 

37. Why are these sprouts pale yellowish instead of green when tlie 

potato sprouts in the dark cellar or closet? 

38. Partially burn a match and examine the black charcoal left. Of 

what is this composed? When the carbon is completely burned 
and only ashes are left, where has the carbon gone? 

39. Burn sugar, starch, and meat, and see if you can see any sign of 

carbon in them. 

40. Name some farm and garden plants that store starch, some that 

store sugar, some that store oil. 

41. To show that the root hairs secrete an acid, take a piece of polished 

marble, such as a broken bureau top, put wet sawdust on this 
and plant a seed in it. Keep it moist till the seed germinates 
and the plant develops several leaves. Then turn the sawdust 
off the marble and note the fine lines made on the surface of 
the marble where the root has been against it. This is due to the 
acid from the root hair dissolving a small quantity of the marble. 

42. Animals, including man, take oxygen out of the air when breath- 

ing, and put into the air carbon dioxide. The plants take car- 
bon out of the air and put into it oxygen. What would finally 
happen to man and all animals if the plants did not do this? 

43. Girdle a young sapling, cutting completely around the tree down 

to the cambium layer, but not into the new wood. Watch this 
tree carefully till the end of the growing season and note what 
results. Watch it also the following year. Explain the reason 
for each result. 

44. Cut a young sapling in the same way, only cut down through the 

layer of new wood all around. Note the results and explain 
them. 

45. Cut off a short section of the stem of some young plant, such as the 

bean, with leaves growing on it. Stick the lower end of this 
stem in red ink and notice how the fluid passes up the vascular 
bundles in the stem and on into the ribs and veins of the leaves. 
Try this also with a monocotyledonous plant, such as corn, and 
compare the results, 
'i'lic references for further reading on plant growth are given, to- 
gether with those on reproduction, at the end of Chapter III. 



CHAPTER III 
HOW PLANTS ARE REPRODUCED 

42. Three Ways of Reproducing a New Plant. — We have 
seen how the plant takes food material, manufactures its 
food, and grows as a single plant. Let us now see how it 
produces a new plant. This is done in three ways: by 
seed, by spores, or by division. Some plants reproduce them- 
selves in more ways than one. We shall not consider spores 
at this time, but shall study reproduction by seed and by 
division. 

43. The Parts of a Flower. — In addition to having buds 
which open and develop into leaves, most plants have other 
buds which open and develop into flowers. It is in these 
flowers that seeds are formed in a most interesting way. 
Figure 31 shows a peach flower split in two. You will notice 
on the outside the small half leaf and half scale-like sepals 
(se'pal). These were greenish in color, covered the flower, 
and protected it before it opened. All these sepals taken 
together are called the calyx (ka'liks). Next inside the calyx 
are the large petals (pet'al), which make the pretty white 
or pink showy part of the flower. All of these petals taken 
together are called the corolla (ko-rol'la). While these two 
parts of the flower, especially the corolla, are the ones usually 
noticed, they are not the important parts. Many kinds of 
flowers fail to have one of them and some fail to have both. 
The calyx serves merely as a protection, and the corolla 

46 



HOW PLANTS ARE REPRODUCED 



47 




serves partly as a protection and partly to attract insects, 
which are needed to help some flowers make seed, as we shall 
see later. Inside of the corolla you will notice the stamens 
(sta'menz) and the pistil (pis^til). It is through these that 
the plant produces a seed. 

44. How the Seed is Made.— If you should cut open one 
of these pistils you would find in the base of it a little thing 
that may become 

a seed. This h a — -^— — — (-rsT^Lf^TLZ 

called an ovule ^ 

(o'vul). This 

ovule, however, 

can never become 

a perfect seed till 

it is fertilized by 

a powder, called 

pollen (poKlen), 

thrown out by the 

stamens. The plant makes this ovule, and at the same 

time makes also this pollen powder, but it makes one 

inside the pistil and the other inside the stamens. They 

must get together before the seed will develop. As soon as 

the ovule is ready to be fertilized by the pollen, the pistil 

exudes a sticky substance on its upper end, and the stamens 

split open and spill out their pollen grains, which fall on the 

sticky end of the pistil. There these small grains of pollen 

germinate somewhat as a seed would, and send down through 

the pistil a tiny thread-like tube, which is too small to be 

seen with the naked eye. This tube sent down from the 

pollen grain will, in a short time, reach the ovule, pierce its 

wall, and allow the contents of pollen tube and ovule to mix 



Fig. 31. A peach-blossom cut in two, and be- 
si:l3 it a morning-glory. Note the pistil (x), made up 
cf the stigma (/), the style (g), and the ovary (d), 
with its ovule (c) within. Note also the anthers (ft), 
the petals of the corolla (a), and the calyx (c). 



48 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 




and thus to fertilize the ovule, so that it can complete the 
making of the tiny embryo and the storing of the reserve 
food for the embryo in its seed-case. The falling of the 
pollen on the stigma is called 'poUenation (pol-le-na'shiin) . 
If, then, the pollen tube goes down and mixes its contents 

with the ovule, it is a com- 
plete fertilization. The low- 
er end of the pistil in which 
the seed is formed is called 
the ovary (oVa-ry). This 
word comes from the Latin 
ovum, which means an egg. 
These ovules, as you see, 
serve a purpose in plants 
similar to that served by 
eggs in animals. The top 
end of the pistil is called 
the stigma (stig'ma), and the 
slender supporting stem is 
called a style. Some plants 
have no style. In these, the 
stigma is directly on top of 
the ovary. The stamen like- 
w^ise has distinct parts. On 
the top is the little box that holds the pollen, called the anther 
(another). Below this is the slender supporting stem called 
the filament (fira-ment). These stamens and pistils in dif- 
ferent plants are of all sorts of shapes and sizes, and in vary- 
ing numbers, just as the calyxes and corollas of different 
plants vary in many different ways. All that is necessary 
to produce a seed is that there be a stamen that develops 



Fig. 32. The process of fertilization 
of the ovule by the pollen. Note how 
the pollen-tube extends down into the 
ovary and comes into contact with 
the ovule. When more than one seed is 
to be developed, a tube must be sent 
down from a pollen grain for each 
ovule, a represents the pollen grain; 
6 represents the anther of the stamen 
from which the pollen falls; c repre- 
sents the pollen-tube; d represents the 
ovule with several cells in it; e repre- 
sents the ovary; / represents the 
corolla; and g represents the calyx. 



HOW PLANTS ARE REPRODUCED 49 

pollen and a pistil that starts the development of one or 
more ovules, and then that somehow the pollen grain get 
on the top of the pistil and send its little thread-like tube 
down and fertilize the ovule. As soon as the pollen has by 
some means reached the stigma, and the pollen tube has 
gone deep enough to reach the ovule, the seed in the 




Fig. 33. The male flowers (y) and female flowers (x) of the pecan. 
Which are borne on the new wood? Where are the others borne? 

ovary develops rapidly. If, however, no pollen falls on the 
stigma, or the tube sent down by the pollen is unable to 
reach the ovule, no seed is produced. Usually in these 
cases the ovary dries up, the flower soon dies, and no 
fruit is produced. This is a frequent cause for failure in the 
crop of peaches, pecans, and other fruit and nut crops. 
Some fruits, however, will develop in spite of a failure in 
fertilization and consequent lack of seed, as, for example, 
the banana, or seedless grape, or seedless orange. 

45. Male or Female Flowers. — Usually, both stamens and 
pistils are made on the same flower, but some plants make 



50 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

their pistils in one set of flowers and their stamens in another 
set, as the pecans and wahiuts do. Some other kinds of 
plants, such as the willows, the date-palms, and some of the 
wild grapes, make flowers with only pistils on one plant and 
flowers with only stamens on another plant. In both these 
cases there may be uncertainty about the pollen getting from 
the staminate (stam'i-nat), or male, flowers over to the 
pistils of the iJistiUaie (pis'ti-lat), or female, flowers. In 
such cases the pollen, which is usually a very fine powder, is 
blown over by the wind, or the insects, which go in and out 
of the flowers to gather nectar, carry the pollen from the 
anthers of the male flowers and brush it upon the pistil of 
the female flowers, and in this way pollenate them. In our 
field corn, for example, the pollen is usually blown from the 
tassels, which are masses of male flowers, or stamens, upon 
the silk of the corn, which is a mass of female flowers, or 
styles and stigmas, that lead down to the corn ovules below. 
Sometimes, even when plants have both stamens and pistils 
on the same flower, these are so situated that it is difficult 
for the pollen to get from the anther to the stigma. When 
the anther stands above the stigma the pollen falls easily 
on it, but when the anther is lower than the stigma, either 
the flower must hang downward, or the wind must blow the 
pollen, or some insect must come along and carry it from 
one to the other on its body. The flowers with white and 
yellow or other light-colored corollas attract night-working 
insects especially. The odors of some flowers and the little 
drops of sweet liquid called nectar in the blossoms of others 
also attract insects. It was impossible for the Smyrna figs 
to bear their delicious fruit when cultivated in America un- 
til the little insects that feed in their blossoms and carry to 



HOW PLANTS ARE REPRODUCED 



51 




them the pollen from male fig blossoms were brought over 
here also from Smyrna. 

In order then to produce seed, the plant must have food 
enough to produce the flowers, the germs, and the little stores 
of reserve food in the seed. We shall see later that certain 
foods are used in larger proportion by the plant in making 
seed, while certain other foods are 
used in larger proportions in making 
stems and leaves. When the plant 
has the right food and makes both the 
ovule in the ovary and the pollen in 
the anther, the ovule still may not get 
fertilized, and hence no seed ever de- 
velop. In your questions and prob- 
lems you will have a chance to think 
out how some of these failures may 
come about. 

46. Crossing and Improving Plants. 
— If the perfect seed is a result of the 
union of the substance from the pollen and the substance in 
the ovule, we should naturally expect that, if we put the 
pollen of a round, flat squash on the stigma of a long-necked 
squash, the seed coming from this union would have in it a 
mixture of the characters of the two. This is just what 
happens. These mixtures of two varieties of the same plant 
resulting from the pollen of one variety falling on the stigma 
of the other, and fertilizing the ovule, are called crosses, or 
hybrids (hi'brids). Carrying the pollen of one plant to the 
pistil of another is called cross-pollenation. 

You can see what splendid opportunity this gives us to 
improve our varieties of farm plants. One can cross a big- 



FiG. 34. The manner in 
which insects help some 
flowers to get fertilized by 
brushing pollen on stigmas 
that would not otherwise 
be easily reached by the 
pollen. 



52 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FAIiMING 



boiled, heavy-yielding cotton-plant that is not early enough, 
on an early one that does not have so good a boll, and get a 
variety that has a mixture of the earliness of one parent and 
the big bolls and big yield of the other. Or, he can cross a 
variety of corn that has a fine root system that enables it to 




Fig. 35. This shows the eflfect produced by hybridization of two different 
types of squash. Note the wide variety of combinations of qualities of the 
two parents. The long crookneck on the left in the upper row and the flat 
scallop on the right in the lower are the two parents. 
Courtesy of the Macmillan Company. From Warren's Elements of Agriculture. 



gather plenty of food material and resist drought, but 
which makes only fair-sized ears of corn, on another variety 
that does not have such good root system and drought-resist- 
ing qualities, but has large ears. By doing this he may get 
a hybrid that both resists drought and has big ears. Mr. 
Burbank in California, Mr. Munson in Texas, and many 
others have in this way produced fine new varieties. Mr. 
Munson, for example, has crossed the hardy, wild, sour 
Texas grapes upon the delicious but delicate Northern and 
Eastern grapes, and produced hybrids that have the hardy 



HOW PLANTS ARE REPRODUCED 



53 



/ 
growth of one parent and the dehciously flavored grapes of 

the other. There are hundreds more of hybrids that need 

to be worked out now to give us plants better suited to our 

Western chmate. A trouble with hybrids is that seeds from 

them may not come true afterward; that is, the seed of a 

fine hybrid melon may produce a melon that is not like the 

parent, but like some one of the 

grandparents, just as a child 

may not be like either his father 

or mother, but resemble one of 





Fig. 36. On the left is a cotton bloom with corolla and stamens cut 
away ready for cross fertilization and the flower ready to be covered with a 
bag. On the right is a tomato bloom, x shows the plant before the unripe 
stamens have been cut away, y shows the flower ready to bag with stamens 
removed. 



the great-grandparents. This failure to come true to the 
parent is called variation. When the variation is due to the 
cropping out of some quality that belonged to one of the 
ancestors back of the immediate parents, it is called reversion 
(re-ver'shiin). This can sometimes be bred out of a hy- 
brid and it can be often made to come true, but the way of 
doing it will have to be learned later. 

47. How to Cross Plants. — Let us now learn how to cross 
two plants. Select two plants belonging to the same species, 
the flowers of which ripen at the same time. Just before 
the corolla of the flower has opened, and before the anthers 



54 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



have opened and let any of the pollen spill, either open up 
or cut away carefully the corolla, so that you can get at the 
stamens. Carefully cut away with small scissors or very 
sharp knife the anthers, making sure that no pollen is left 
in the blossom. Cover this flower immediately with a small, 
thin paper bag, and tie it so that no pollen can come to it, 

either from the wind or 
an insect. Then exam- 
ine this flower daily un- 
til you find it has ripened 
enough for the pistil to 
exude the sticky matter 
on its stigma. Now 
take the pollen from a 
flower of the variety 
that you wish to cross 
on it, and gently dust 
this pollen on the stig- 
ma, and immediately 
Then label this flower and 
Leave it covered 




. Fig. 37. The crossed stigma protected 
by a paper bag and labelled. 



cover it again with the bag. 
make a record of what you have done, 
for several days until the ovule or ovules are fertilized and 
the fruit or seeds begin to form. Since crosses often fail, 
it is advisable to make several, and to make them on differ- 
ent days, so as to make more sure that you get one or more 
to live. The larger the number of crossed seeds you prepare, 
the greater the probability is that one of the plants coming 
from these seeds will contain a desirable combination of the 
various qualities that were in the two parent plants.* These 

* The plants resulting from crosses do not in the first generation 
show mixtures of single characters, as, for example, of color; but they 



HOW PLANTS ARE REPRODUCED 



5? 



seeds should be planted well separated from any patch of 
related plants and carefully watched. If a specially favor- 
able cross is secured, the flowers of this should be protected 
from the pollen of neighboring plants to increase the chance 
of its seed reproducing the same fine plant unmixed. By 




Fig. 38. This illustrates the wide range of variation shown in plants from 
the seed of the daisy. 
Courtesy of the Macmillan Company. From Warren's Elements of Agriculture. 



continually selecting and protecting the plants that come true 
each year, and planting only their seeds, you may soon have 
seeds that will breed true practically all the time. When 
you take an advanced course in plant breeding, you will 
learn a shorter and surer way to make your hybrid come 
true to seed, but it is too complicated for you to learn now. 

show new combinations of characteristics of one parent with other 
characteristics of the other parent. For example, the first generation 
may show the shape of one parent combined with the color or flavor 
of the other. The production of blends of two differing single charac- 
teristics, such as a mulatto skin from the mixture of white and black, 
is rare and not well understood. 



56 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

In making crosses, the best results have usually come from 
crossing plants that do not differ very widely, and both of 
which represent desirable types. In this way many good 
varieties have been produced. 

48. Variation in Plants. — One peculiarity about the re- 
production of plants by seed is so important that we must 
study it carefully, for it is the greatest means we have of 
improving our farm plants. This fact is that even when 
the seeds of a plant have been fertilized by pollen from the 
same plant, the seeds will not all produce plants exactly like 
the parent plant. Some will produce plants that are just 
the same as the parent, some will be better, and some not so 
good. The next generation will be different from the parent 
in many ways. We have already learned that this failure 
of the offspring to reproduce the parent exactly is called 
variation, and have seen that the variation may be due to 
the cropping out of a characteristic of one of the ancestors 
of the parent plant. There are other causes of variation, 
but this matter is too complicated to discuss in your first 
course. In a row of cotton or any other plants, even when 
the whole row is planted from the seed of one plant, you 
will notice various types of plants. These differences are 
due partly to variation. If now you take the seeds from the 
best stalk in the row, while they too will vary somewhat, and 
may be partly cross-pollenized from some poor stalk near by, 
they will tend to reproduce this specially fine stalk and even a 
few better ones. By constantly repeating this selection, and 
always taking the best specimens for your seed, you will 
constantly get a better and better variety. 

49. Results of Selection. — It is by this process of selection 
of favorable variations and breeding and multiplying them 
that practically all of our finest varieties of farm and garden 




and ^'ntwllon'^Z'Ln^^^^^^^ ^^j?? ^^ ^^"ation. selection, 

which are illustrated Sw ^^''' ^^^ cabbage, and the cauliflower 

Adapted from Bailey's Encyclopedia of Horticulture. 



58 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



plants have been produced. As each different soil and cli- 
mate will best suit a somewhat different variety, there re- 
mains still a great work to be done by each intelligent 
farmer in watching for favorable variations in the crops on 




Fig. 40. Reid's yellow dent corn, showing the results of fifty years of 
selection. 



his land, and then protecting these, saving the seeds sepa- 
rately, planting them in a separate place, and, by repeated 
selection, breeding up the variety best suited to his partic- 
ular locality. This is a particularly interesting and valuable 
work for our boys and girls to do. By careful selection, the 
fine Boone County V\^hite, the Reid's YeHow Dent, and the 
gourd seed corn were bred from variations of ordinary corn. 
All the kinds of roses we have are but variations of the 



HOW PLANTS ARE REPRODUCED 59 

simple wild rose that have been selected and carefully bred. 
All of our varieties of cotton are the results of variations 
being carefully selected and properly bred. In Wisconsin 
they have selected and bred a variety of oats that increased 
the State's yield fifteen million bushels a year. By careful 
selection it would be possible in a few years to secure varieties 
of cotton suited to different sections that would add a million 
bales a year to the crop of Texas, without increasing the 
amount of land cultivated a single acre. The same is true to a 
greater or less extent of every State and with every farm crop. 

50. Plants May Reproduce by Division. — A plant may 
also reproduce itself by means of some branch or root or 
leaf of the plant touching the ground, and sending out roots 
of its own, and developing a top of its own, so that it can 
draw its food directly from the earth and air, and not be 
dependent longer upon the old roots from which it originally 
sprang. The new plant then may be separated entirely 
from the parent plant. This is called reproduction by 
division. Some plants, such as the potato and the banana, 
produce so few seeds that it is easier to reproduce them by 
division. Others, such as the peach and the apple, are so sure 
not to come true to seed that it is only by division that we 
can reproduce them with any certainty of what we shall get. 
;So many of our farm, orchard, and vegetable crops are of 
this kind that it is very important that we learn the chief 
methods of reproducing plants by division. 

Plants make new ones by dividing themselves in three 
ways, and they are divided by man in four ways. These 
seven methods of reproduction by division are as follows: 

1 . Creeping Stems. Many plants develop horizontal stems 
called stolons (sto'lons), which throw out roots and send up 



60 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 




Fig. 41. See how the blue grass re 
produces itself by stolons. 



a culm, or new shoot, at cer- 
tain points along the stem, 
called nodes. These stolons 
may be above ground or 
below. When below ground 
thay are called root stocks. 
You see examples of these 
stolons above ground in the 
blackberry, dewberry, and 
most perennial vines. In 
such plants as Johnson 
grass and Bermuda grass 
you see the underground 
stolons or root stocks. 

2. Enlarged Stems. At times a great mass of reserve 
food is stored in a stem, and one or more new germs, 
or buds which will develop a new plant, are formed in this 
enlarged stem, or tuber, as it is called. The Irish potato 
is one of these enlarged stems or tubers. 

3. Enlarged Root. 
The mass of reserve 
food and the new 
germ or germs may be 
stored in an enlarged 
root, instead of an en- 
larged stem. We see 
such in the common 
sweet potato. 

4. Layering. Man 
often helps out the 

p J. . . i Fig. 42. The Irish potato and the enlarged 

process OI division by imderground stems or tubers. 




HOW PLANTS AKE REPRODUCED 



61 




V^»jm 



bending stems over and 
covering them with earth 
to force them to throw 
out new roots and new 
shoots. This is called 
layering. In the rasp- 
berry, for example, the 
tip of the stem is bent to ^ .o ^t ^ ^ ^v, *• ^ ^u 

^ Fig. 43, Note how the tip of the rasp- 

the ground and fastened berry takes root and grows when layered. 

there, or covered with a 

little soil, whereupon it throws out roots underneath and 
sends up a new shoot on top. The next year this new 
plant is cut loose from the parent plant and will grow. 
This is called tip layering. With the grape, the best plan is 
to dig a long trench about two inches deep, and, after laying 
the vine in this, the whole is covered over with soil, leaving 
only the tip out. This cane will throw out roots and send 
up stems at each joint, and each of these may be separated 
and planted elsewhere the next year. With some other 
plants, such as the gooseberry, the soil is simply piled up 
twelve to eighteen inches high around the plant as it stands. 
The new shoots and roots are formed in this soil, and are 

ready for separa- 
tion in one or two 
seasons. 

5. C uttings. 
Most plants that 
divide naturally 
and many that do 
not divide natu- 

Jertag'*- ™' '"'*°'' °' propagating grapes by ^^jj^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^jg_ 




62 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



cially divided by cutting off a piece of the stem, or root, 
or, in a few cases, a piece of leaf, and placing this under 
proper conditions. Nearly all plants with a cambium 
layer can be propagated by cuttings. Some plants are best 




Fig. 45. Cuttings of rose (a), grape (6), and flg (c). At d the proper 
position of the cutting in the soil is shown. 



reproduced by one kind of cutting and some by another 
kind. Some cuttings grow in water, but they usually do 
best in sand. Likewise, the best season for making cuttings 
varies. As a general thing, cuttings of fruiting plants are 
best made when the wood is dormant, in the late fall. 
This gives the cambium layer time to heal over the 
wounded surface before the growing season begins. These 
cuttings should be from wood of the past season's growth, 
and usually should be six or eight inches long. A cutting 
may be longer or shorter than this, and it may have only 
one bud or several buds, but usually cuttings six inches in 
length, with two or three buds, grow best. The bottom 
end of the cutting should be made just below a bud, and 



HOW PLANTS ARE REPRODUCED 



63 



the top end from one-half to one inch above a bnd. Figure 
45 shows how the cutting should be placed in the soil. As 
soon as the growing season has begun, these cuttings will 
throw out roots at the lower buried joints, or buds, and 
the exposed upper bud will start a shoot. Cuttings usually 
grow better in soil that has very little organic matter in it, 
as the little bacteria* and f2ingi (fun'ji) 
living on the organic matter often at- 
tack the exposed cut surface and cause 
decay. For this reason cuttings are often 
rooted in coarse sand. The soil should 
be moist but not soaking, and should 
be well drained. The air should be 
moist and of uniform temperature also, 
for best results. With cuttings that are 
hard to root, bottom heat is frequently 
applied with good results. After cut- 
tings are started they should be care- 
fully cultivated and kept free from 
weeds and grass, as their roots are near 
the surface. 

6 and 7. Grafting and Budding. Instead of cutting off a 
piece of the plant and planting it in the soil to make it grow, 
'we can insert it in the body of another plant and let it 
grow there. If the part cut off and inserted in the other 
plant is a bud with a bit of surrounding bark, the operation 




Fig. 46. A rooted 
begonia-leaf cutting. 



* Bacteria are little one-celled plants that have no chlorophyl in 
them, and with a few important exceptions cannot manufacture car- 
bohydrates out of the raw food materials in soil and air. They must, 
therefore, live on other plants or animals, either dead or alive, and take 
their prepared food from them. Fungi differ from bacteria in having 
many cells and a more complex structure. 



64 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 




is called budding; if the inserted piece is a part of a stem, it 
is called grafting. Plants must be closely related, else it is 
not possible for one to be budded or grafted on the other. 
Usually, the}' should belong to the same variety, but some- 
times even different species may be budded, as, for example, 

the peach may be budded 
upon the plum. 

When the transplanted 
bud or graft lives and 
grows out of the other 
plant, all the limbs, leaves, 
and fruit developing from 
the bud or graft remain 
true to the variety from 
which the bud was taken, 
in spite of the fact that 
the raw food material is 
furnished by the root of 
the plant in which the bud 
or graft was planted. This makes it possible to put buds or 
grafts from fine varieties on trees or vines that bear natu- 
rally poor fruit, and thus force them to bear good fruits in- 
stead of poor. Most of our orchard trees have long been 
treated this way, and now the nut trees are beginning to be 
treated in the same way. Both budding and grafting are 
easy to learn. 

51. How to Graft. — Nearly all grafting work is done when 
the plant is dormant. The plant upon which the piece is 
grafted is called the stock, and the part that is transferred is 
called the scion (si'iin). There are many forms of grafting, 
but the three most important are tongue grafting (or whip 



Fig. 47, The method of making 
whip, or tongue, graft. 



the 



HOW PLANTS ARE REPRODUCED 



65 



grafting, as it is also called), cleft grafting, and bark grafting. 
Tongue grafting is used mostly on young seedling stocks less 
than an inch in diameter. For plants larger than that, and 
especially in top working old trees, some form of cleft graft- 
ing or bark grafting is generally used. 

1. For the tongue graft the stock should be about the 
size of a pencil. The scion should be as near the same size 




FILLINO WITH 
PAPER 



REMOI/E SACK 
im-3M££l(S 



Fig. 48. The process of cleft grafting. 



as possible, and should have two or more buds on it. Cut 
.the stock off with a slant, so as to give a cut surface 
'about three times as great as it would have been if cut 
square across. Then set the knife blade about one-third 
the distance down from the top of the cut surface and make 
a vertical incision about one-half inch long. (See Figure 47.) 
Trim the scion in similar manner, join the two together as 
shown in Figure 47, wrap with a string, or press stiff clay 
around to hold the two in place. Knives should always be 
thoroughly cleaned before cutting into a plant and, as far 



66 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



as possible, neither the 
hands nor anything else 
should be allowed to 
touch the cut edges. As 
it is the cambium layer 
that throws out healing 
tissue and unites the 
stock and scion, thus al- 
lowing sap to flow from 
one to the other, it is 
necessary to use care in 
fitting the graft so that 
the cambium of the 
scion is placed in con- 
tact with the cambium 
of the stock. When this 
is done, it is easy for 
healing tissue to unite 
these, and for the circula- 
tion of sap from one to the 
other to start up soon. 

2. The cleft graft may 
be used on small nursery 
plants also, but it is usu- 
ally employed on the 
large plants in putting 
tops of fine varieties of fruits or nuts on common trees. In 
cleft grafting, the stock, for best results, should not be over 
three inches in diameter, while the scion should be the same 
size as in tongue grafting. In top working an old tree cut 
back the central limbs with a square cut to stubs four to 




Fig. 49. A young cleft graft of pecan 
growing on a hickory. 



HOW PLANTS ARE REPRODUCED 67 

six inches long. Smooth the end, then drive down a graft- 
ing knife one or two inches as shown in Figure 48. With- 
draw the knife and keep the incision open with a sharpened 
stick. The scion should now be trimmed to a wedge shape 
as shown, with the inside thinner than the. outside to make 
a perfect fit, and one bud left on the outside near the top. 
The split edges of the limb should now be cut away in such 
shape that when the stick is withdrawn the scion will fit 
tightly in the cut as shown in Figure 48. The scion should 
now be quickly but gently forced down in the cut, the 
cambium layer of the scion being carefully placed directly 
against the cambium of the stock. The stick is then with- 
drawn. As soon as the scion is in place all cut surfaces 
should be covered with warm grafting wax, and a string tied 
around the stump, so as to help hold the grafts in place. A 
good grafting wax is made by using four parts of rosin, two 
parts bees-wax, and one of tallow, by weight. These are cut 
in small pieces, melted together over the fire in a vessel, and 
poured into water to cool. It is then made into balls, and 
heated later as wanted. 

52. How to Bud Plants. — Budding is usually best done 
during the plant's active growing season. As in grafting, 
it is necessary that the two plants be closely related, and that 
the cambium layer of the bud be brought into connection 
with the cambium layer of the stock. The three most im- 
portant forms of budding are the shield bud (or T bud), the 
patch hud, and the chip bud. Nearly all fruit and ornamental 
trees are propagated by the shield bud, while the chip and 
patch buds are best with nut trees. 

1. The shield bud is used mostly on young nursery stock 
about the size of a pencil, though it is sometimes used also 



68 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



in top-working old trees. In budding, usually a branch 
about the size of the stock and containing several leaf buds 
is cut from the tree you wish to propagate, and the leaves 
are at once cut off so as to leave about half an inch of the 
stem of the leaf, or petiole (pet'i-6l), as it is named. This 
branch is called the bud stick and must be kept wrapped in 
damp cloth or moss. When ready to begin work, first pick 



v1 




Fig. 50. The steps in the proper method of shield-budding. 




out a smooth place on your stock and make a slit through the 
bark for about one inch in length up and down the stock. 
Then at the top of this incision make a cross-cut, about one- 
quarter inch long, giving your incision the shape of a T. 
In making these incisions be careful to cut through the bark 
and cambium, but not into the young growing wood. Then 
cut a bud from your bud stick by placing the blade of a 
sharp knife about one-quarter of an inch below the bud and 
cutting upward to a point about the same distance above the 
bud, but leaving the cut strip still adhering to the bud stick 
at its upper end. Then withdraw the knife and cut through 
the bark at the top of the strip that was split off by the first 
cut. Then, by catching hold of the petiole of the leaf, lift 



HOW PLANTS ARE REPRODUCED 



69 



Iff .!ll 




the bark entirely free from the wood, as shown in Figure 50. 
Then open the cut on the stock by lifting up the bark in 
both directions from the cross-cut, and slip the bud from the 
scion under the bark of the stock, as shown in Figure 50. 
The bud should then be wrapped as shown, with either 
raffia, twine, waxed cloth, or similar material, so as to hold 
the two cambium layers 
close together and to 
keep out water, air, and 
dust. In ten days or 
two weeks the bud should 
have united with the 
stock, and the wrapping 
should be removed to al- 
low circulation of sap and 
growth. Part of the stock 
above the bud and other . ^'?- ^i- On the left aii the stages of 

ring-budding, and on the right a success- 
buds close to the inserted f^l young ring bud growing. 

bud should be removed 

when the bud is inserted, or later when the wrappings are 
removed. This throws more sap into the bud and forces 
it out more rapidly. It also makes the stock less likely 
to be broken by the wind. When the bud has grown 
about six inches long, all the top of the stock above the bud 
should be cut off to further force the growth of the bud. 

2. Ring-budding is in general the same as shield-budding, 
except that the cross incision at the top extends entirely 
around the stock, and another cross incision is made at the 
lower end of the upright incision, also entirely around the 
stock. A similar cut is made on the bud stick and the entire 
ring of bark with the bud at its centre is taken off the bud 




70 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 




stick. The ring of bark is also removed from the stock and 
the ring of bark and bud from the bud stick are put in its 
place, as shown in Figure 51. This is then wrapped in the 
same manner as the shield bud. Here again it is necessary 
for the two cambium layers to be put in contact with each 

other, hence it is 
very necessary to 
have the piece of 
bark from the bud 
stick exactly fit 
the place prepared 
for it on the stock. 
To make this cer- 
tain, it is best to 
use a regular ring- 
budding tool, such 
as is shown in Fig- 
ure 52. The stock 
and bud stick are both cut with the same pair of parallel 
knives, and hence there must be a perfect fit. When the 
ring of bark from the bud stick will not reach entirely 
around the stock, a strip of the bark of the stock is left so as 
to fill the surface evenly 

53. How to Succeed in Budding and Grafting. — In all 
kinds of budding it is especially important that the knives 
be kept clean, that the cut surfaces and inner bark be 
not touched by the hands or other things, that the work be 
done quickly in order to expose the cut surface as little as 
possible to the air, and that the cambium layers be carefully 
brought into contact. If these directions are followed, if 
fresh budding wood and vigorous stock are used, and if the 



Fig. 52. A shortened and more convenient form 
of the standard ring-budding tool which was de- 
vised by Mr. H. A. Halbert and Dr. Ellis, a repre- 
sents one of the cutting blades; b represents the 
hole for looking at the bud ; c represents a small 
blade for slitting and raising the bark. 




Fig. 53. The new growth from buds placed in the top of an old pecan- 
tree which was sawed off for that purpose. Courtesy of E. E. Risien. 



72 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

buds are watched afterward, the wrapping not removed 
until the buds have started growing, and all sprouts that 
would rob the bud of its nourishment are kept cut off, you 
are sure to have success in budding and grafting. 



QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES 

46. Collect a blossom of each of the following plants, make a drawing, 

and label each part: peach, plum, strawberry, pea, bean, cotton, 

47. Examine a peach, pear, or plum tree before it has budded out in 

spring, and see if there is more than one kind of bud on it. 
Draw the branch, showing the buds, and describe each kind. 
Note later into what each kind develops. 

48. Examine the branches of a budding pecan-tree carefully, and find 

both the male and female flowers. Can you tell now why the 
pecan crop fails if there is a long rainy spell during blooming 
season? Can you also see why pecan seeds do not usually come 
true, but are mixed? 

49. Find a male grape-vine and a female grape-vine. Tell how they 

differ in appearance. 

50. Bring in a flower in which the pollen would fall easily on the stigma. 

Bring in another flower in which it would be difficult for the 
pollen to get on the stigma, and find out how the pollen is car- 
ried in this last case. 
5L Select in the field, make notes on, and bring to school especially 
desirable variations found in one of the following plants : cotton, 
corn, oats, wheat, cane, milo, Kafir, peas. Plan with your 
teacher a scheme for breeding and developing this desirable 
variation. (See the lessons on cotton and corn.) 

52. Make and root cuttings of each of the following: rose, fig, grape. 

Root, by layering, a blackberry and a grape. 

53. Select and cross-pollenate two good types of cotton-plant. Save 

the seeds from those that live, plant them separately, and watch 
for desirable hybrids. In spring do the same for garden peas, 
and in summer for field peas and watermelons. 

54. In September and October plant apple, peach, and plum seed, to 

have stock on which later to bud and graft. Plant pecans in 
January and February. 



HOW PLANTS ARE REPRODUCED 73 

55. Just before the buds begin to swell in spring, cut off some twigs 
about as thick as a pencil from the tree bearing the best pecans, 
and bearing most regularly in your neighborhood. Keep these 
in a cool place, buried in moist sand, till the buds on the pecan- 
trees are beginning to swell. Then saw off the tops of two 
vigorous young pecan-trees, that are about three inches in 
diameter, about six or seven feet from the ground. Put two 
cleft grafts in the top of each tree. If either of these grows, 
keep all natural sprouts cut off about the graft. If any graft 
fails, let the natural sprouts grow till they are the size of your 
finger, and then ring bud these as directed in this chapter with 
buds taken from your best tree. 



REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING 

Also consult for fuller list of references on this and all other topics 
Encyclopedia of Agriculture and the Classified List of Publications of the 
U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

"Botany: with Agricultural Applications," J. N. Martin. 
"Plant Physiology," B. M. Duggar. 
"Practical Botany," Bergen and Caldwell. 

* "Principles of Plant Culture," E. S. Goff. 
"Principles of Breeding," E. Davenport. 
"Plant Breeding," L. H. Bailey. 

* "Elements of Agriculture," G. F. Warren. 

* "Rural School Agriculture," Chas. W. Davis. 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

No. 157. "The Propagation of Plants." 
No. 229. "Production of Good Seed Corn." 
No. 253. "The Germination of Seed Corn." 

* The books marked with an asterisk (*) present the subject with a 
minimum of technical terms, hence are especially suitable for the public- 
school library. Farmers' Bulletins may be secured free from the Na- 
tional Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. As new bulletins 
are issued constantly, no list can long remain complete. Any one who 
desires information should write to the National Department of Agri- 
culture, the State Department of Agriculture, the State A. and M. 
College, and the Experiment Station for lists of available bulletins. 



74 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

No. 266. "Top Working Orchard Trees." 

No. 334. "Plant Breeding on the Farm." 

No. 376. "How to Grow Young Trees for Forest Planting." 

No. 408. "School Exercises in Plant Production." 

No. 428. "Testing Farm Seed in the Home and Rural School. 

No. 433. "Directions for Making Window Gardens." 

No. 471. "Grape Propagation, Pruning and Training." 

No. 501. "Cotton Improvement Under Weevil Conditions." 

No. 700. "Pecan Culture." 

No. 710. "Bridge Grafting." 

No. 948. "The Rag Doll Seed Tester." 

Experiment Station Bulletins: 

No. 54. "Rules and Apparatus for Seed Testing." 
No. 186. "Elementary Exercises in Agriculture." 

Texas Department of Agriculture Bulletin : 

No. 19. "The Pecan and Hickory in Texas." 
No. 55. "The Propagation of Pecans." 

The A. and M, College of Texas Extension Service Bulletins: 
No. B. 55. "Propagating Pecans." 
No. B. 21. "Top- Working Pecan Trees." 

Texas Experiment Station Circular: 

No. 20. "Patch-Budding Large Limbs of Pecan Trees". 



CHAPTER IV 
THE SOIL 

54. The Study of the Soil. — We have seen that plants send 
their roots down into the soil to gather food materials with 
which to manufacture the foods that nourish them. Let us 
now see how this soil has been made, of what it is composed, 
what the plants take out of it, and how we may arrange to 
keep the soil supplied with the food materials needed by the 
plant. 

55. The Earth^s Surface Once Had No Soil. — For unknown 
thousands of years there was no soil at all upon the earth. 
The surface of the earth was everywhere either rock or water. 
All soil had its beginning in the breaking and pulverizing of 
the rock. The main forces that have been and still are work- 
ing upon the rock and pulverizing it and producing soil are the 
sun, water, air, plants, and animals. 

56. How the Sun Helps to Make Soil. — ^You know that heat 
expands most things and that when they cool they contract. 
Perhaps you don't know that the same amount of heat will 
make some things expand faster than others. The rock crust 
is heated by the sun by day and cools off again by night. 
Some parts of the rock expand more than others, because they 
are made of material that expands more rapidly from heat. 
The expanding at different rates of the various substances in 
the rock causes these substances to pull loose from one an- 
other. Likewise, those parts of even the same substance 

75 



76 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

which are more exposed to the sun, heat more quickly and 
expand more rapidly than do the parts less exposed. Be- 
cause of this the heated parts pull away from the other parts 
that are not so heated, just as the outside of a glass bottle 
when dipped suddenly into boiling water will expand at once, 
pull away from the cooler part, and break the bottle before 
the inside gets hot enough to expand and keep up with it. 
This constant expansion and contraction produced by the heat 
of the sun has always been cracking and pulling apart the ex- 
posed surface of the rock crust just as you have seen it crack 
a cement sidewalk. This force would, of course, do most work 
where the heat and cold are extreme and where the changes 
are sudden. 

57. How Water Helps to Make Soil.— The water, first faUing 
as rain, has passed for millions of years over these rocks, and 
has worn them by rubbing, and dissolved them, or otherwise 
changed them by chemical action. When the water has car- 
bon dioxide in it, as you will soon see that it frequently has, 
it dissolves the rock much faster. The water further breaks 
up the rock by getting into the cracks and freezing there and 
bursting the rock. After the rocks are broken, the water 
grinds them finer by rolling them against each other, and 
frequently carries them great distances. You have often seen 
the mass of well-worn stones of all sizes that are deposited 
along the beds of our rivers and creeks. However, the great- 
est amount of material carried by the water is the lighter and 
more finely powdered soil which is suspended in the water as 
mud and deposited over the fields in the valleys. All river 
bottom-lands and other lowlands are deposits brought there 
by the water. In addition to the wearing and grinding and 
carrying of rock and soil by the streams of water, there 



THE SOIL 77 

are, in high cold mountains, rivers of ice and snow that 
flow along, though extremely slowly, dragging and grind- 
ing rock as they go. These rivers of ice are called glaciers 
(gla'shers). At a very remote date, when the climate of the 
world was very different from what it is now, there were 
much larger caps of ice at each pole than there are now, and 
these huge caps of ice spread out and flowed in the form of, 
many glaciers toward the equator. These immense glaciers 
broke off great masses of projecting rock and ground them to 
pieces as they dragged them along. In this way they carried 
along and crushed great quantities of stone and helped to 
make a considerable amount of soil in the northern part of 
our country. As they melted long before Texas was reached, 
we have no glacial soil in Texas or the Southwest. 

58. How the Air Helps to Make Soil. — ^The air wears the 
surface of the rocks, by blowing piece against piece, just as 
the water does, only more slowly. It is also constantly chang- 
ing some of the rock by a chemical combination of a substance 
in the air with some substance in the rock, just as the oxygen 
of the air unites with all exposed iron surfaces and forms rust. 
When a rock is being worn and in other ways changed by 
water and air, it is said to be iveathering. Rock that has been 
changed and broken up by water and air, or by other means, 
until it is all in fine pieces, is said to be disintegrated (dis- 
in'te-gra-ted). 

59. How Plants and Animals Help to Make Soil. — ^The 
plants that first began to grow on the earth were of a low order, 
such as could live in the powdered and ground-up rock. Upon 
the death of these plants, this vegetable matter was added to 
the soil. This added not merely that much matter, but the 
decaying vegetable matter held water and air in the soil bet- 



78 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

ter than they had been held before, and also gave rise to an 
acid which helped to dissolve the rock faster. The acid given 
out by the roots of the plants also helped to dissolve the rock, 
and the roots growing into cracks soon expanded and split the 
rocks farther apart. The bodies of the animals that ate the 
plants likewise went into the soil after their death. These 
decaying animal bodies had a similar effect to that produced 
by the plants. In addition to this, the worms and other ani- 
mals that live or burrow in the soil open it and move enormous 
quantities of soil from one place or one depth to another. 

60. Of What the Soil is Composed. — The soil, then, is this 
finely divided surface of the earth in which plants may grow. 
Its composition is nothing like so simple as most people sup- 
pose. It is by no means mere dead matter. Besides the 
various sized particles of the ground-up and disintegrated 
rock, and the decaying or decayed bodies of plants and ani- 
mals, the soil contains innumerable millions of microscopically 
small living plants and animals that feed upon the dead and 
living organic matter in the soil. In the innumerable pores 
in the solid matter are vast quantities of water, air, carbon- 
dioxide, and other gases. 

61. How Soils Are Named. — Soils are named and classified 
in various ways. The most common way is according to the 
size of the particles composing the soil. Soil composed of the 
finest particles is called clay soil. This is a misleading name, 
for clay is often used to refer to a particular kind of fine soil 
that comes from the disintegration of a certain class of rocks. 
However, in agricultural books any extremely finely divided 
soil is called clay. The particles of a purely clay soil are so 
fine that they cannot be distinguished separately with the eye, 
nor can they be felt separately when the soil is mashed be- 



THE SOIL 79 

tween the fingers. Some clay soils have particles less than 
"2 5 o¥ of an inch in diameter. Next above the clay in fine- 
ness comes the silt, which is the fine soil deposited by streams 
or pools of water. Then come, in order of fineness, very fine 
sand, fine sand, medium sand, coarse sand, and gravel. These 
need no explanation. Names are given to soils also in accord- 
ance with the amount of vegetable and animal matter in them, 
and the condition of decay of this matter. If there is a great 
mass of almost pure vegetable matter, not very much decom- 
posed, it is called peat. This soil is found in swamps where 
rich vegetation has fallen year after year into the water and 
has been so covered that it has not thoroughly decayed. This 
decaying mass is often dug up, dried, and used as fuel. Such 
soil is not used for farm crops. When the vegetable matter is 
very plentiful but is more decayed, it is called muck. This 
makes a rich, black, loose soil that holds much water and, if 
properly drained, supports finely a few special crops. A soil 
that has some clay, and enough sand to make it loose, is called 
a loam. A fine soil that has been deposited by the water is 
called a silt. Practically all soils have more or less vegetable 
matter mixed with the other particles. Many soils are mixt- 
ures and have compound names, such as sandy loam, grav- 
elly loam, clay loam. These are so easily understood that 
they need no explanation. A sticky clay soil that is hard to 
plow is called a heavy soil, and a loose sandy soil that is easy 
to work is called a light soil. As a matter of fact, a yard of 
clay soil is lighter than a yard of sand ; that is, it weighs less. 
A soil that warms up quickly is called a warm soil. A sandy 
soil that drains well and is open for the free circulation of air 
is usually warm, while a sticky, tight, clay soil is usually a cold 
soil. The upper and more porous layer of the soil, which has 



80 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

the organic matter in it and has been greatly modified by the 
action of the air and water, is usually spoken of as the soil, 
while the compact, hard, usually lighter colored layer below, 
which has little or no organic matter in it, and has been less 
affected by air and water, is called the subsoil. 

62. What Purpose Each Part of the Soil Serves.— We have 
seen now that the soil is made up of rock particles and de- 
cayed or decaying vegetable and animal matter. It is filled 
with water and air, and contains billions of microscopic living 
things. Let us see now what part each plays in the produc- 
tion of our farm crops and how we can use each to the best 
advantage. 

63. The Rock Particles in the Soil. — The rock particles 
make up the bulk of most soils and give 65 to 95 per cent of 
the weight. These particles, when disintegrated and dissolved 
in the soil water, furnish the plant the original mineral food ma- 
terials. They also act as a reservoir for holding the water, air, 
decaying vegetable matter, and other things. As it is the 
thin film of water surrounding each little particle of soil that 
does not flow away at once, and is left for the use of the grow- 
ing crop, you can see that the finer the soil the more of this 
valuable soil water it can retain, because there is a greater 
amount of surface for holding the water in a cubic foot of small 
particles than in a cubic foot of large particles. The sum of 
the surface areas of all the particles in any soil measures its 
water-holding capacity. It has been calculated that the sum 
of the surface of all the particles in a cubic foot of soil is 37,700 
square feet, when each particle has a diameter of only 
ToVo of an inch. This is about the actual diameter of the 
particles in a coarse river-bottom silt. Clay is much finer 
than this. Just as the finely divided soil exposes more sur- 




THE SOIL 81 

face to hold water, so it exposes more surface to be acted on by 
the water, air, and other things in the soil. In this way more 
food material is constantly being disintegrated for the plants 
that are growing in the soil. 

64. Water in the Soil. — The most important element in 
the soil is the water, because it is itself a most important food 
material, and it is the means of dissolving all the other food 
materials so that they can be taken in by the root hairs of the 
plants. After a heavy rain, 
every pore in the soil is filled 
with water, but very soon all 
the free water in the larger 
pores drains away, leaving a 
thin film surrounding and ad- 

1 • , 1 , . .1 Fig. 54. This shows how the films 

hermg to each tmy soil par- of caplUary water pass from particle 

tiVlp TVik mn««5 nf filmo: nf *° Particle of soil, passing always 
tlCie. 1 niS mass or nims or toward the dry particle. 

water left is called cayillary 

water, because it is held and moved from place to place in 
the soil by capillary attraction, about which you have al- 
ready learned. It is this capillary water, filled with dis- 
solved food materials, that is the mainstay of our farm 
crops. This water moves very slowly in every direction, pass- 
ing from particles that are wet to particles that are drier. In 
this way, as the surface particles of the soil are dried by the 
sun and wind, the water passes up from below to these dry 
particles by capillary attraction, just as oil passes up a wick as 
fast as the blaze burns it off at the end. In the same manner, 
as fast as the root hairs soak up the soil water surrounding 
them, the soil water moves by capillary attraction from the 
neighboring moist particles to these dried particles and thus 
gives a continuous supply to the plant as long as there is any 



82 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



capillary moisture near by, and as long as the pores of the soil 
are not too large for the water to pass by capillary attraction. 
65. Air in the Soil. — Most good soil is about half air space. 
After a rain, or where not properly drained, the water fills 
this space, pressing out the air. Plants, as you have learned, 
must have air to live. A few plants can get enough air out of 

the soil water to live, 
but most farm plants 
demand more air than 
is contained in water, 
and will as surely 
drown in water-soaked 
soil as a man will in a 
pond, though they 
drown more slowly. 
The air in the soil 

Fig. 55. The water in the bottle on the left S C T V C S Several pur- 

is fresh, that in the one on the right has had ^^^jp^ Tf pnntain«; frpp 

the air boiled out of it and other air is pre- POSeS. II COntdins iree 

vented from entering by the film of oil on top. i^itrOijen which is in 

The cuttings were put into the bottles at the ^ 

same time. Note the effect of air in the water part changed intO a Sol- 

upon growth. tip • ^i m 

uble lorm m the soil, 
so that the plant can absorb it. You will soon learn that 
there are in the soil some especially helpful little microscopic 
organisms* (or'gan-izmz) that are able to take the free 
nitrogen of the air which the plant cannot use, and work 
it into a soluble nitrogen compound which the plant can 
use. Unless there is a plentiful supply of air in the soil these 
little organisms are not active. Not only is this true but, 

* Organism is a general term which may refer to either a plant or an 
animal, and organic matter is a general term which refers to the matter 
of the bodies of either plants or animals. 




THE SOIL 



83^ 



when the soil is full of water, another group of organisms in 
the soil that tear down soluble nitrogen compounds gets es- 
pecially active and destroys the soluble nitrogen food materials 
that are already in the soil. The yellowing of plants when the 
water stands long on the soil is thought by some to be due 
to the lack of nitrogen. 

66. Organic Matter in the Soil. — The decaying organic 
matter in the soil is called humus (hu'miis). It is usually the 
humus which 
gives the dark 
color to the soil. 
While it is possi- 
ble to grow" a 
plant in pure 
sand, if all the 
food materials are 
added in chemi- 
cal form, it can 
be said that for 
practical field pur- 
poses humus is necessary for all successful crop production. 
Humus serves many good purposes. As dead bodies con- 
tain practically the same substances that they do when 
living, they give back to the soil a good part of what the 
plant took from it when growing. In addition to this, 
humus serves four other good purposes. First, it increases the 
water-holding capacity of the soil; second, when a soil is too 
tight, it helps to loosen it up and get air into it, and when it is 
too loose it helps to fill the large pores and bind the soil to- 
gether; third, it furnishes food for and encourages growth of 
helpful bacteria that change the insoluble nitrogen into sol- 




FiG. 56. If humus had been added to the soil on 
the right and a dust mulch had been maintained 
on it, it would have held its water as did the soil on 
the left. 



84 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

uble nitrogen compounds; fourth, while it decomposes, it sets 
free carbon dioxide, which, when mixed with the water in 
the soil, helps it to dissolve more food materials for the plant. 
You see then that the value of humus is far greater than the 
mere value of the food material contained in the bodies of the 
dead organisms that compose it. 

67. Living Organisms in the Soil. — While worms help to 
make the soil porous and to decompose some of the vegetable 
matter, the greatest work done by living organisms in the soil 
is that done by very small plants — moulds, yeasts, and bac- 
teria. The little bacteria are so small that they can be seen 
only with a strong microscope. It takes about 150,000 of 
the smallest of them to stretch an inch, and it takes about 
25,000 on the average to measure that much. They are one 
celled plants, and can multiply every few minutes by each di- 
viding into two, just as you saw that the cells in the cam- 
bium layer of the tree do. The number of these little plants 
in the soil is astonishing. A soil poor in bacteria would have 
over 20,000,000 per ounce, while a rich soil might have many 
billion in an ounce. Some bacteria are very harmful, des- 
troying the useful nitrogen compounds in the soil, but the 
vast majority of them are of the greatest use. They cause 
the decomposition of the humus in the soil. Some tear 
down especially the carbo-hydrates, some the fats, and some 
the proteins. The insoluble proteins are broken down and 
part of the nitrogen is changed to ammonia which is in turn 
changed to a soluble nitrate which the plants can use. If it 
were not for the action of these bacteria, all plant and animal 
life would soon cease. The plant, as you have seen, takes 
the crude food materials (water, carbon dioxide, nitrogen 
compounds, etc.) and makes them into sugar, starch, fat, 



THE SOIL 85 

and proteid foods, which the animals, including man, must 
have to live on. These foods the animals eat and return 
at once in large part to the soil as manure. Later on, all of 
the remainder not returned as manure is returned to the 
soil in the dead bodies of the animals. In this way the soil 
gets back everything that was taken from it. But the roots 
of the plant cannot take in the fats and proteids and other 
compounds in the manure or in the bodies of the dead ani- 
mals or even of the dead plants until these are changed. If 
something did not step in to break up and change these 
insoluble organic compounds into simple soluble crude food 
materials again, the soil would soon become a mere mass 
of corpses and all plants would starve for want of food ma- 
terials on which to live. Here is where the little bacteria 
come in. They tear down the dead organic matter and 
help to prepare the crude food materials for the use of the 
growing plants again, and thus complete the circle, so that 
the round of nature can go on and on forever. In addition 
to tearing down the organic compounds, the action of the 
bacteria has a valuable indirect result. During the process 
of decomposition of the humus, acid gases are produced 
which help with the decomposition of the rock particles. 
Some of these bacteria also take free insoluble nitrogen out 
of the air and make from it soluble nitrogen compounds. 

68. How to Improve the Soil. — ^We have now seen that the 
soil is composed of finely divided rock particles, of organic 
matter in various stages of decay, of Hving organisms, and a 
varying quantity of water and air, which fill the pores and 
take up about half of the space of a good soil. Let us now 
see how the soil can be treated so as to make it most favorable 
to the growth of the plants rooted in it. If we will keep in. 



86 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

mind what we have learned about the way plants feed, and the 
composition of the soil, we can soon reason out what is neces- 
sary to do in order to favor the growth of plants. 

69. How to Make the Soil Hold More Water.— We have 
seen that plants can take food materials from the soil only in 




Fig. 57. 
of soils. 



An inexpensive equipment for testing the water-holding capacity 

i 

Courtesy of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



liquid form, and hence that, without a supply of water, the 
plant can get no food material at all from the soil, no matter 
how much is there. Many of our arid Western lands are rich 
in food materials, but crops starve to death in them from want 
of water. Then, the first essential of good farming is to keep 
plenty of moisture in the soil. We have seen that after a rain 
the soil has in it not only capillary water, but free water that 
fills the larger open spaces between the soil particles. The 
valuable water for the crop, as we have seen, is the capil- 
lary water left surrounding the tiny soil particles after the free 



I 



THE SOIL 87 

water is drained away. In order to increase the amount of 
this water left in the soil, the first thing to do is to break the 
soil into as fine particles as possible and thus give more sur- 
face for the films of water to stick to. Some fine clay soils can 
hold as much as forty pounds of capillary water in a hundred 
pounds of soil, while some very coarse soils hold as little as 
five pounds per hundred. Breaking the land also makes more 
large pores, and hence, when a rain falls, less of it runs im- 
mediately off. Of this water that is caught in the large pores, 
a part runs off into springs and streams, a part may go down 
and be left as a reservoir of free water, or may diffuse itself 
as capillary water further in the soil. However, land that has 
been broken and opened up tends to pack together again. One 
of the best things to prevent this and to help keep such land 
porous and capable of holding water is a plentiful supply of 
humus in the soil. Some land has the opposite trouble. It 
is coarse and open, so that the water drains out too rapidly, 
there being only the small amount of surface of the large soil 
particles for the films of moisture to stick to. In such land 
humus helps to fill the pores, delay the water, and furnish 
surface to which the films of capillary water can adhere. In 
order, then, to increase the water-holding capacity of soils, we 
should break our land deep and thoroughly, and put into it 
plenty of organic matter such as manure and turned under 
vegetation. 

70. Capillary Water Moves Toward the Dry Particles. — ^As 
soon as the water is in the soil, it begins to come out. The 
free water is carried down by the force of gravity, and the 
capillary water begins to move slowly toward the surface of 
the soil. As rapidly as the sun and w^ind evaporate the water 
that is on the soil particles at the surface and these become 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 




dry, the capillary water on neighboring particles moves up 
from the wetter particles below to these dry particles. This 
water is then evaporated and still more water comes up from 
below by capillary attraction and is in turn evaporated. This 
continues as long as there is any capillary water in the soil, 
for capillary water moves constantly, though slowly, toward 

the dry particles. While 
the fact that capillary 
water moves always 
toward the dry parti- 
cles and causes the wa- 
ter to be lost from the 
soil by evaporation, it 
is the salvation of the 
plants, for, as we have 
seen, in the same way, 
as fast as the root hairs 
take up the water from 
the soil particles next 
to them, the soil water from other particles near by moves by 
capillary attraction over to these dried particles and thus 
keeps the root hairs supplied with water. In this way a 
twenty-five-bushel-per-acre crop of wheat uses on the aver- 
age about five thousand pounds of water per day, or a million 
pounds in a season, for each acre. While the plant takes an 
immense quantity of water from the soil in growing, the loss 
of water from evaporation of the capillary moisture from the 
surface of the soil may be much greater. It has been estima- 
ted that on a hot, dry, windy day as much as 40,000 pounds 
of water may be lost by evaporation from the surface of one 
acre of ground. That is as much water as is used by the 



Fig. 58. An inexpensive equipment for test- 
ing the capillary rise of water, in soils. The 
chimneys should have fluted tops in order to 
admit water freely to the soil. 
Courtesy of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



THE SOIL 



89 



plants In producing from 400 to 500 
pounds of green corn or wheat. 

71. How the Dust Mulch Prevents the 
Loss of Water. — The important question, 
then, is, how can this evaporation of capil- 
lary water from the surface of the soil be . 
prevented? The only practical way to do 
this is to prevent this water ever getting 
to the surface and being exposed to the 
wind and sun. You have often noticed 
that when all the soil around was baked 
dry and hard, there would be moisture in 
the ground under a pile of old stones or 
brick-bats. This is because the stones 
protected the top of the soil from the sun 
and wind, and the air spaces in between 
the piled brick and stone were too large 
for the moisture to pass over them by 
capillary attraction and come to the top 
of the pile and be evaporated. You have 
often seen how the soil is kept moist in 
the same way when protected by a board 
lying on it close enough to prevent the air 
circulating freely over the surface of the 
soil, yet not close enough to allow water 
to pass freely by capillary attraction from 
the soil on through the board. This shows 
us how we may save or conserve the moisture in our soil. 
We cannot put boards or rock piles all over our field, but we 
can by proper shallow cultivation put all over the tops of our 
fields a layer of an inch or so of loose soil that is so open and 




Fig. 59. This shows 
how the dust mulch 
prevents the rise of 
water to the surface 
of the soil. The 
capillary water passes 
freely through the 
small spaces between 
the packed particles 
of soil below the line 
A B, at which the 
mulch begins. Above 
that the larger open 
spaces prevent the 
rise of the water by 
capillary attraction. 



90 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

porous and has such wide air spaces between it and the soil 
below that the capillary water cannot pass over these spaces 
and get up to the surface to be evaporated and lost. While 
there will be some points of contact at which water can pass 
upward, these will be so few that the loss will be very small as 
compared with what it would be without this dust mulch, 
as such a layer of loosened top soil is called. 

72. Dry Farming. — So successful is this system of conserv- 
ing moisture, that in some sections where enough water for a 
crop never falls in one year, the water falling one year has been 
caught and held in the soil until the next year by breaking and 
opening up the land before the brief rainy seasons so that it 
will better catch the rain, and by harrowing it as soon as pos- 
sible after each rain to make a dust mulch to hold the water. 
In this way, the water falling during one year is added to that 
which falls the next year, and thus enough water is secured to 
grow a good crop every other year, instead of making a failure 
every year, as was done before this was learned. In most 
parts of the Southwest there is enough rainfall to produce a 
crop each year, but the dry air, hot sunshine, and frequent 
winds make it especially important that every means be used to 
prevent the moisture in the soil coming to the surface by capil- 
lary attraction and being wasted by evaporation. Now that 
we have learned the principles of water conservation, the 
matter is in our own hands. 

73. Supplying Water to Crops Artificially. — In addition to 
the above methods of keeping a supply of water in the soil, it 
is often possible to add by artificial means a great deal to the 
natural supply of water furnished by rainfall. Over a third 
of the land of the United States is too dry to produce a crop 
without some artificial means of providing water. The fur- 



THE SOIL 91 

nishing water artificially to the crop is called irrigation (ir-ri- 
ga'shun). A very large part, though by no means all, of this 
waste land may be made to yield fine crops by irrigation. 
Lands in Texas that were before worth only a dollar or two an 
acre have, since irrigation has been provided, brought two or 
three hundred dollars per acre. Irrigation has been prac- 




FiG. 60. An irrigation canal on the Pecos at Rock Cut. 
Courtesy of "Farm and Ranch." 

tised for thousands of years. The laborers of Egypt used to 
carry the water from the River Nile in vessels and pour it on 
the plants. Later, wheels were so placed that the current of 
the stream would turn the wheel and by machinery lift to a 
higher level a part of the water, which would then be led by 
pipes and ditches to the field. Some of the Indians prac- 
tised irrigation in our country before the white men came, but 
the great progress in irrigation has come in very recent years. 



92 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

Fifty years ago there were less than 100,000 acres irrigated in 
the United States. Now there are over 10,000,000 acres 
under irrigation and the rate of increase is rapid. 

74. Not All Sections Can Be Irrigated. — In a large part of 
our arid land irrigation is not possible, because there is not 
a sufficient supply of underground water to be pumped from 
wells, nor is there enough rainfall to supply surface water for 
irrigation even if all of it were saved. In other sections there 
is plenty of water, but it contains substances which would 
accumulate in the soil if it were used for irrigation and would 
soon poison the land so that no crops would grow. For ex- 
ample, the water in the upper Brazos is slightly salty, and if 
used long for irrigation would ruin the land. The water from 
many of the flowing wells contains so much of salt or soda or 
of certain sulphur compounds that it cannot be Used for irri- 
gation. Before using water for irrigation one should always 
have it carefully analyzed to see if it has harmful substan- 
ces in it that would accumulate in the soil and ruin it in a 
few years. Occasionally, even when the water itself is harm- 
less, it cannot be used for irrigation because of the nature 
of the land. This is true at times of soils that have un- 
derneath them a layer of alkali (aKka-li), or other substance 
injurious to plants. The water when flooded over the field 
goes down to this poison layer, dissolves some of it, and 
brings some of this poison up to the surface by capillary 
attraction. The poison, being in this way brought up where 
the plants will absorb it, destroys the crops. When unintel- 
ligently used, irrigation is as great a danger as it is a blessing 
when properly used. 

75. Methods of Irrigation. — The methods of irrigation are 
many, but are not hard to learn if you will study the bulletins 



THE SOIL 93 

to which you are referred. There is space here only to give 
a very general idea of a few methods. At times a small 
stream or part of a river is led by a canal from its regular chan- 
nel and carried along until there has been fall enough in the 
land for the bottom of the canal to be about level with the top 
of the ground. The water is held in the canal by banks built 
partly above the level of the ground. From this large canal 
smaller canals branch off and distribute the water to different 
fields. Then, each field has running through it a series of 
smaller ditches coming from the canal. Into these ditches the 
water from the small canal is turned whenever the crop needs 
water. Sometimes these ditches are close enough together for 
the water, by soaking through the banks, gradually to wet all 
the land. More often the ditches are broken at certain places 
when water is needed and the water allowed to pour over the 
field. The field must be nearly level, and the ditches laid off 
with care. Often the water, when let out of the ditch, is led 
down the rows in the field. At other times the field is simply 
flooded all over. In many cases the water is pumped by en- 
gines from a stream or lake through pipes to a canal or to the 
field, and then spread over the field by ditches or by other 
means. In many places wells are bored and the water 
pumped or allowed to run into a large tank, from which it is 
led by pipes or small canals and ditches over the field. In 
some places, especially on truck farms, a net-work of pipes 
is raised on poles over the field. These pipes have holes 
bored in them, so that when the water is turned into them 
they sprinkle an artificial rain over the crop. In other places 
the pipes are laid under the ground and the water turned into 
these so that the supply of water goes directly to the roots of 
the crop, and less of it is lost by evaporation. 



94 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



76. Irrigation in Texas. — Along the Rio Grande, especially 
around Brownsville and Laredo, great quantities of formerly 
almost waste land are now irrigated from the river and pro- 
ducing remarkable crops. In the Toyah Valley and Fort 
Stockton region, water for irrigation is secured from springs 
and small streams. Around Barstow the water is taken from 




Fig. 61. A flowing well in Glen Rose, Texas, and a pumped well near 
Midland, Texas. 



the Pecos River. Around Beeville and in the section south- 
west of San Antonio, and lately in many other parts of Texas, 
large wells are sunk and water pumped into tanks for pur- 
poses of irrigation. In Somervell County and in many parts 
through central Texas flowing wells are used. In fact, every 
month or so brings an account of some new section in Texas 
in which it has been found practicable to use irrigation either 
from wells or surface water. 



THE SOIL 95 

77. The Need of Conserving and Using Wasted Water. — 
The saving of wasted water and applying it to tlie fields is one 
of the most important economic matters before the people of 
our State. Enough water goes to waste in floods in our State 
to add millions to our annual production. Each year more and 
more of this water should be conserved and used. A good 
way to learn more about irrigation by practical experience on 
a small scale is to study the bulletins on this subject and then 
prepare a garden spot near a tank on your place and irrigate 
a vegetable garden. Every farm in a dry section that has a 
tank should have at least an irrigated garden. 

78. How to Keep Air in the Soil. — We have seen that all 
plants must have air to hve, and that in a good soil about one- 
half of the space is taken up by air. As the soil settles down 
and is packed by the rains, the pores in it are made smaller and 
smaller, and the air is slowly squeezed out. The result is that 
the favorable bacteria in the soil do not flourish, as they too 
need air; nor is the free nitrogen of the air changed into sol- 
uble nitrogen compounds as rapidly. The remedy for this is 
simple. First of all, before the crop is planted, the soil should 
be broken deeply and turned again until the particles are well 
broken apart and plenty of air is mixed with the soil. Then, 
after each rain, when the patter of the water on the surface 
has run the top of the soil together and largely closed the 
pores, this tight crust, which tends to shut off the entrance of 
air and the circulation of air in the soil, must be broken by 
cultivation as soon as the land can be worked. The same 
loose mulch which we saw makes it difficult for the water to 
come out of the soil also makes it easy for the air to get in. 

79. The Injuries Resulting from Water-Soaked Soil. — 
Whenever water enters the soil, this water takes the space that 



96 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

has been occupied by air and drives out that much air. A 
completely soaked soil has therefore no space left at all for 
air, and contains only so much air as is contained in the water. 
We have seen that only a very few crops can live with so little 
air. It is therefore necessary to get the surplus water out of 
the soil in which most crops are growing in order to allow the 
air to get to the roots. The water-soaked soil also encourages 
the growth of the injurious bacteria which tear down and 
destroy the valuable nitrogen compounds already in the soil. 
Fortunately, in most soils the free water goes down rapidly to 
a point below that reached by the roots of ordinary farm 
crops, and rests in the permanent bed of ground water, or it 
goes down until it strikes a layer that it cannot penetrate, and 
runs along over this layer until it finds an outlet in some spring 
or stream farther down the hill. There is, however, a great 
deal of land which is so close that water penetrates it so slowly 
that the average farm crop dies for want of air before the free 
water escapes after long rains, or before the water which runs 
into this soil from the soil of neighboring higher ground can 
find its way out. Such soil often has below the top soil a still 
closer subsoil, which makes the passing down of the water im- 
possible. In all these cases of soils that are soaked with water 
near enough the surface to shut the air from the roots of farm 
crops, it becomes necessary to drain the soil in order to let 
in air. 

80. Soil Drains. — ^The simplest method of draining surplus 
water from land is to dig ditches in the field, so that the water 
in the soil will seep into these open ditches, and to so plan the 
ditches that they lead the water off to a creek or other 
natural drain near by. The depth of these drainage ditches 
and their distances apart in the field should vary according to 



THE SOIL 



97 




Fig. 62. The method of laying tile drains. 



the nature of the land. The usual ditches are from two to 
three feet deep and located from fifty to one hundred feet 
apart. The planning of these ditches may be easily learned 
from the references given. While open ditches will drain the 
land, they take up a deal of space, interfere with cultivation, 
and require frequent cleaning out. They should be made 
with sloping sides 
and when not very 
deep should be 
made so sloping 
that they can be 
driven across. In 
order to avoid the 
disadvantages o f 
open ditches, un- 
derground tile 
drains are coming to be used more and more. These tiles are 
usually made of earthenware, in short, open joints, and are 
laid in trenches at about the same level that the bottom of 
an open ditch would be placed. The tile is then covered com- 
pletely, and the trench filled up even with the surface of the 
soil so that the entire field may be cultivated. The free water 
as it settles down goes into these drains, which are so planned 
as to lead the water gently off down the hill to some natural 
drain. The method of laying these is easily understood from 
Figure 62. When the drains are laid, a carefully prepared 
diagram should be kept showing the exact location of each 
drain, as occasionally these tiles become choked by roots, and 
have to be opened and cleaned out. If no chart is made 
when they are laid, it is difficult later to find a pipe when 
repairs are needed. In certain districts great drainage canals 



98 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

are dug, and all the surrounding fields are drained into 
these. The details of these large drainage plans you can 
learn, too, from your references. 

81. Effects of Drainage. — Drainage has several good ef- 
fects. First, it lets air into the soil and thus promotes growth; 
second, it makes the soil warmer, and because of the warm air 
being able to circulate deeper in drained soil it warms up 
quicker and is sooner ready for planting in spring; third, it 
enables the crop to stand drought better. At first this seems 
strange, but it is easy to understand. In the poorly drained 
soil the roots stay near the surface, as they cannot get sufficient 
air lower down. Later in the season, when drought comes and 
the water is dried out of the top soil, the plant starves because 
it has no roots down in the deep, moist soil. When the free 
water has been properly drained out of the soil, the plant roots 
go deeper down into the soil, and hence, when the drought 
dries out the top and the upper roots can get no food materials, 
these lower roots deeper down in the still moist soil can con- 
tinue to supply the plant. 

82. How to Keep Bacteria and Plant Food Materials in the 
Soil. — We have seen how the needed supply of water and air 
can best be kept in the soil. If we can learn now how to keep 
a supply of bacteria and of plant food materials in the soil in 
such form that the plants can use them, the growing of our 
crops will be put upon a safer basis. Let us now see how this 
can be done. The supply of bacteria and the supply of plant 
food material are so closely connected with each other that 
they can best be considered together. 

83. How the Soil Is Exhausted. — Before we can intelligently 
plan to keep a suppl}^ of food materials in the soil and pre- 
vent its becoming exhausted, we must learn what it is that 



THE SOIL 99 

causes exhaustion of the soil. The first step in remedying an 
evil is to remove the cause of the trouble, but before we can 
do this, we must find out what the cause is. Most people 
think that the taking of the crop from the land is the cause of 
its exhaustion. The crop does take food materials from the 
soil, but this is only one of four main causes of loss of fertility. 
Soil unwisely handled may lose a great deal more from other 
causes than from the removal of the crop. The four main 
causes of soil exhaustion are: (1) surface washing, (2) leach- 
ing, (3) loss to the air, and (4) loss through removal of vegeta- 
tion. Let us now see how each of these takes place, and how 
it may be prevented. 

84. Loss by Surface Washing and How to Prevent It. — ^You 
have all seen the muddy water flowing off after a rain. This 
water is carrying away quantities of soluble food materials 
dissolved in it, as well as quantities of small particles of the 
soil itself. The faster the water moves the larger the amount 
and the larger the size of suspended particles it carries. On 
steep hillsides in many cases the entire soil is in this way car- 
ried away to the streams and lowlands.* To prevent this sur- 
face washing, the first thing to do is to open up the soil and 
get plenty of humus in it. This will enable more of the rain 
to soak in and leave less to wash away. Next, the land should 
be terraced, or protected with hillside ditches, and the crop 

* Professor Salisbury says: " It has been estimated that the Missis- 
sippi River carries to the Gulf more than 400,000,000 tons of sediment 
each year, or more than a million tons a day. It would take nearly 900 
daily trains of 50 cars each, each car carrying 25 tons, to carry an equal 
amount of sand and mud to the Gulf. . . . 

" The amount of matter carried to the sea in solution each year by 
all the rivers of the earth has been estimated at nearly 5,000,000,000 
tons. This is about one-third as much as the sediment carried by the 
rivers." 



100 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

rows run so that the water will flow around the hill and run 
off more slowly. If the water is delayed longer on the soil, 
more of it will soak in, and the amount of material it can carry 
is lessened. Even after all terracing and ditching that are 
practicable are used, some land is still so very sloping that the 
soil washes badly when cultivated. All such land should be 
covered with a sod and used for pasture, orchard or forest, the 
roots of the sod and trees being the best means of holding the 

land. The sod 





. 12' 




should contain such 
plants as Bermuda 
grass and Japan 
clover, which grow 

Fig. 63. An inexpensive home-made level with in Warmmonths and 
which terraces may be laid out. _ ' ^ 

others which grow in 
the cold months, such as bur-clover and rescue-grass. 

85. How to Make a Terrace. — A terrace is simply a bank 
of soil extending around a hillside and so constructed that it 
is level, or nearly so, all along. The effect of this long level 
bank is to stop the surface water as it rushes down the hill. 
This delayed water then runs along the upper side of the ter- 
race and accumulates until the top of the water reaches the 
top of the terrace. Then the additional water flows over the 
terrace all along in a thin sheet. In this way it goes more 
slowly and does not wash the land as it does when rushing 
down in narrow streams. Simple terraces may be laid out by 
any thoughtful boy with the cheap-home made terrace level 
shown in Figure 63. Start at the top of the hill and with the 
aid of your level find a spot that is three feet lower than the 
top. Then, from this spot as a starting point, run a line around 
the hill, keeping it always practically level with the starting 



THE SOIL 101 

point. Place stakes along to mark this line. This will be the 
line of your first terrace. Then find a spot three feet lower 
than this line. Lay off your second terrace line on a level 
with this spot. Continue in this way laying off terrace lines 
until you reach the bottom of the slope. On very steep hill- 
sides it may be necessary to make your terraces with more 
than three feet drop, but this is usually undesirable. Having 
all your terrace lines now staked out, run a furrow along each, 
following the stakes closely. Leave about two feet of hard 
unbroken ground below this furrow, and upon this hard 
ground throw furrows from each side until a fair-sized bank 
is made all along the line. Wherever for any reason the bank 
is not level after the plowing, it must be finished with other 
tools until the top of the entire bank is practically level and 
the bank is about equally strong all along. Sow on this bank 
seeds of rapidly growing plants with strong fibrous roots that 
will hold the bank together, such as peas, clover, or oats. It 
is especially desirable that some winter growing plant should 
also grow on these terraces to strengthen them against the 
winter rains. 

86. Loss by Leaching. — In addition to the surface water, 
the free water that fills the pores of the soil after each rain and 
passes on down dissolves great quantities of soluble food ma- 
terials present and carries these down below the reach of the 
roots of ordinary farm crops, or carries them out to the val- 
leys and empties them into the streams. Disintegration is 
going on all the time in the soil, and soluble food materials are 
being formed. If no crop takes these up before a heavy rain 
comes, they are dissolved in the free water and largely carried 
away. In the winter months when the heavy rains usually 
fall, many fields have no crops growing on them to utilize the 



102 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

soluble food materials present, so these are leached out and 
lost. In many cases more is lost this way each year than is 
consumed by the crop. 

87. How to Prevent Leaching. — The means of preventing 
leaching are very similar to those for preventing washing. 
Deep breaking of the land and filling it with humus so that it 
will hold more of the water in its pores by capillary attraction 
is the first step. In addition to this, we should see to it that 
at practically all seasons of the year some crop is growing on 
the land, so that the soluble food materials may be taken out 
of the soil as soon as they are formed and utilized by the 
plants, and not left to be leached away by the rains. Our 
mild climate favors the action of bacteria and the rapid 
disintegration of the soil and the making of soluble food 
materials during fall and winter and early spring. We should 
therefore keep our fields covered during these seasons with 
grains, other grasses, clovers, and similar cover crops, in order 
to save our land from leaching, 

88. Loss of Nitrogen to the Air. — In addition to the loss of 
food materials to the water, at times large quantities are lost 
to the air. The harmful bacteria which tear down the soluble 
nitrogen compounds* set free a quantity of nitrogen which 
escapes into the air. These denitrifying bacteria flourish in 
soil that has an excess of water and a poor supply of air, and 
in soil that is acid. The means of preventing this loss are 
obvious. If wet, the soil should be well drained and opened 
up so as to hold an ample supply of air. If acid, the soil 
should have lime added to it to correct this acidity. The 
method of testing a soil to see if it is acid is simple. Dig down 
into the soil and press a piece of blue litmus (lit'mus) paper 

* These are called denitrifying (de-ni'trl-fl-Ing) bacteria. 



THE SOIL 103 

against the moist soil. If the soil is acid, the htmus paper will 
turn red or pink. The amount of lime needed depends upon 
how acid the soil is. From five hundred pounds to a ton or 
more per acre are used. After a certain quantity has been 
applied, and time allowed for it to be diffused through the 
soil, another test should be made, and the lime added until the 
soil is either neutral (nu'tral) or slightly alkaline (al'ka-lln). 
Alkaline means the opposite of acid. Such a soil will turn red 
litmus paper blue. Neutral means neither acid nor alkaline. 

89. Plants Take Material From the Soil in Growing. — Let 
us now see what the crop takes out of the soil. We plant 
about ten pounds of seed corn on an acre. If everything is 
favorable and a hundred bushels of corn are produced on this 
acre, that will give 5,600 pounds of corn and about 6,000 
pounds of stover. The tiny embryos in that ten pounds of 
seed corn have therefore taken about 11,590 pounds of mate- 
rial from the soil and air. Plainly we cannot continue to take 
such enormous quantities of material out of the soil and air 
year after year and put nothing back without finally exhaust- 
ing the supply. But before we can plan intelligently to put 
back, we must know what the substances are which the plant 
uses. 

90. How to Find Out What the Plant Uses in Growing.— It 
is not easy to find out of what a plant is made. You or I can 
tear a pie to pieces and see that it is made of apple and sugar 
and flour, but if we then try to find what the fiour is made of, 
we have to use a microscope to recognize the tiny starch cells, 
the gluten, and other parts. There we have to quit, but a 
trained chemist can take the starch or gluten, or a drop of 
the water in the apple, and tear each of these apart by delicate 
operations and learn what they are made of. He can, as you 



104 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

know, run a current of electricity through the water and spHt 
it up into the two gases hydrogen and oxygen. At last, even 
the chemist comes to something that he cannot split any 
further, as, for instance, the hydrogen and oxygen. The tear- 
ing up of a compound and finding what it is made of is called 
analysis (a-nal'i-sis), and the place in which such work is done 
is called a laboratory (lab'o-ra-to-ry). You know that any 
substance that can be analyzed into two or more simpler things 
is called a compound, and one that is absolutely simple and 
cannot be analyzed further is called an element. Iron, silver, 
gold, carbon are some of the elements with which you are 
familiar. 

91. Only Ten Important Elements in Plants. — There are 
less than eighty elements in all the world, everything we know 
being one of these elements or a combination of them. 
Strange to say, it has been found that all plants and all ani- 
mals are made of the same elements. Of these elements there 
are ten especially important ones. Other elements are found 
in animals and plants, but the following ten are the necessary 
ones, without which no plant or animal can live : 



Carbon 
Oxygen 
Hydrogen 



Nitrogen 

Phosphorus (fos'fo-rQs) 

Potassium (p5-ta,s'sl-um) 



Magnesium (mag-ne'zhi-um) 

Calcium (kai'sl-um) 

Iron 

Sulphur 



92.. Only Three Elements in Danger of Exhaustion. — The 
carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen make up ninety-five per cent 
of the plant. As these are secured from the air and water, we 
need not consider them further here. The supply of carbon 
dioxide is practically inexhaustible, as all animals are con- 
stantly breathing out a fresh supply into the air. It is esti- 



THE SOIL 105 

mated that the human race alone gives off more than 50,000,- 
000 tons of this gas per day. The supply of water has already 
been considered. The calcium, iron, sulphur, and magnesium 
are used only in small amounts, and are usually in the soil in 
practically inexhaustible quantities, so that these four also 
need not concern us. Occasionally calcium is needed. This 
is easily supplied in the form of lime, which is a calcium com- 
pound. The three elements, nitrogen, phosphorus, and po- 
tassium, are used in considerable quantities, and all soils are 
liable to be exhausted of one or more of these if not intelli- 
gently handled. 

93. How Plants Exhaust the Soil of Nitrogen, Phosphorus, 
and Potassium. — Every hundred-bushel crop of corn takes out 
of the soil 150 pounds of nitrogen, the amount of phosphorus 
found in 52 pounds of phosphoric acid (a compound of phos- 
phorus), and the amount of potassium found in 85 pounds of 
potash (a compound of potassium). The cotton crop which 
produces a 500-pound bale takes out of the soil 100 pounds of 
nitrogen, the phosphorus found in 40 pounds of phosphoric 
acid and the potassium found in 65 pounds of potash. Simi- 
larly all other plants take these elements in large quantities 
out of the soil. On the other hand, analysis of soils has shown 
only a limited quantity of these substances in the soil. Analy- 
ses made of 49 soils in different parts of America showed an 
average of 3,000 pounds of nitrogen, 4,000 pounds of phos- 
phoric acid, and 16,000 pounds of potash per acre. A bale- 
to-the-acre crop of cotton takes out 100 pounds of nitrogen. 
You can see that at this rate such a crop would exhaust the 
soil of nitrogen absolutely in thirty years, if it could be grown 
that long, and if no fresh nitrogen were put into the soil. A 
kundred-bushels-to-the-acre crop of corn would, under similar 



106 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

conditions, exhaust the nitrogen in twenty years. If the 
nitrogen were exhausted, no plant could grow, no matter how 
much of other food materials remained, as plants cannot live 
without nitrogen. 

94. The Nature of the Soil Tends to Prevent Permanent 
Exhaustion. — Fortunately, the complete exhaustion of the 
soil is not as easy as the above would suggest. Two things 
tend to prevent this : the nature of the soil itself, and the work 
of the wise farmer. The nitrogen and other elements in the 
soil are never all in a condition in which they can be used by 
the crop at one time. The plant can use only so much of the 
material as is in a soluble form, so that it can be taken in by 
the root hairs. The material that is in a condition to be used 
by the plant is called available food material. Only a part of 
the total food material in the soil is at any one time available. 
If a field that has been exhausted by continued cropping 
is allowed to rest a few years, it will produce again, because 
disintegration wull have gone on in the soil and some more 
of the food material will have been changed into available 
form. Food materials will have been prepared also by the 
bacteria. The soil thus tends to save itself and renew its 
own fertiUty. This is, however, a very slow and expensive 
process. The farmer can, by intelligent handling, prevent 
the land ever needing a rest. Indeed he can gather profit- 
able crops each season, and still make his soil richer and 
richer each year, if he will arrange to supply the soil with 
the needed nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash. 



CHAPTER V 



MANURES, FERTILIZERS, AND ROTATION 



95. How the Farmer May Add Plant-Food Materials to 
His Soil. — Let us now see how the farmer may most econom- 
ically add to the supply of food materials in the soil. The 
principal methods of doing this are: 1, turning under stubble 
and other vegetation; 2, adding manures; 3, adding fertil- 
izers; 4, growing special crops that encourage nitrogen-fixing 
bacteria. We shall now study each of these methods. 

96. Turning Under Stubble and Other Vegetation Adds 
Food Material. — Fortunately, the part of most of our field 
crops which is sold contains only a portion of the food mate- 
rial taken from the soil by the plant. In cotton, for example, 
only about one per cent of the material that made the lint 
came from the soil, so 
that if the farmer returns 
the stalks and seed, the 
soil will get back nearly 
all that it lost. The 
stalks which bore the lint 
in a five-hundred-pound 
bale alone contain food 
materials that would 
cost about nine dollars 
if bought as fertihzer to 
add to the soil. The 



NITROGEN 31 LBS. 



PH05. ACID 13 LBS. 



POTASH \2 LBS. 



NITROGEtt 1.7 LB5., 

PflOS ACID 0.5 L5. 
I 
POTASH 2.3 LBSl 



Fig. 64. Showing the large amounts of 
nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash used 
by 1,000 pounds of cotton-seed and the 
very small amounts used by 500 pounds of 
lint cotton. 

107 



108 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

seeds are, however, much richer in the needed food materials. 
Figure 64 shows you the large amounts of nitrogen, phos- 
phoric acid, and potash taken away in the seeds. The plant- 
food materials in the stalks of a hundred-bushel com crop after 
the grain is harvested would cost, as fertilizer, over eighteen 





Fig. 65. On the left no manure or fertilizer used and no corn produced. 
On the right 15 tons of horse manure used with yield of 65 bushels per acre. 

dollars. The plant-food materials in the stubble and straw 
of a thirty-five-bushel crop of oats are worth over thirteen 
dollars. The facts are similar in the cases of other crops. 
This shows how very important it is to turn back under the 
soil all stubble and stalks before they lose a great part of 
their value by decay and by giving off nitrogen into the air. 
In addition to the plant-food materials added directly by the 
turned -under vegetation, we have already seen that by en- 
couraging the growth of bacteria, and through other effects 
on the soil, the humus adds perhaps even more to the avail- 
able supply of food materials indirectly than it does directly. 



MANURES, FERTILIZERS, AND ROTATION 109 

Recall these effects and consider them again. The farmer, 
then, who burns his stubble and straw is burning money, 
for when vegetable matter is burned nearly all its fertilizing 
value is wasted, leaving little except the small amount of 
potash in the ashes. 

97. Manure: What It Is and What Are Its Values. — A 
large part of our farm crops is fed to animals. Of the ele- 
ments in this food which the plants took from the soil dis- 
solved in water, the animal retains in its body only about 
fifteen per cent, giving back in its manure eighty-five per 
cent. The manure consists of the solid dung and the liquid 
urine. The urine contains more than twice as much of the 
valuable elements per ton as does the dry manure. The 
value of manure for fertilizing depends upon the animal 
from which it comes and the food which the animal has eaten. 
Horse manure is richer than cow or hog manure, but not so 
rich as sheep or poultry manure. A ton of horse manure 
contains from seven to twelve pounds of nitrogen, five to 
eight pounds of phosphoric acid, and nine to twelve pounds 
of potash, depending largely upon the foodstuffs used. At 
the price now paid for these fertilizing materials, the amount 
in a ton of manure would be worth from $2.25 to $3.60. You 
have already seen that the manure, in addition. to the value 
of the food materials which it contains, is of perhaps greater 
value to the soil in holding moisture, keeping the pores open, 
adding useful bacteria, supporting those already there, and 
in giving off acid gas that helps with the dissolving of the 
rock particles. In experiments carried on for several years 
in New York and Ohio, it was found that the crops of hay 
and oats yielded $2.58 worth of additional produce for each 
ton of manure put upon the land, while crops of wheat, 
clover, and potatoes yielded $2.96 worth for each ton. 



no 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



These figures by no means measure the full value of the 
manure, because a large part of the fertilizing value of manure 
remains in the soil many years. This is proved by experi- 
ments at Rothamsted, England, where a field continued to 
give an increased yield from the effect of long use of manure 
for thirty years after the manure was applied. Two fields, 
as nearly equal as could be found, were cultivated alike for 
twenty years. On one, fourteen tons of manure per acre 
were used annually. On the other no manure was used. 
For the following thirty years both were cultivated alike 
again, no manure being applied to either. At the end of 
this time the effect of the manure was still being shown. 
The land which had been manured produced on the average 
for the last ten years 2,900 pounds of grain to 1,300 pounds 
produced by the unmanured land. 

98. Amounts of Manure from Different Animals. — ^The 
manure produced each year for each thousand pounds 
weight of the animal or animals is shown by Roberts to have 
approximately the following values: horses, $42; cows, $39; 
sheep, $46; hogs, $80. The total amount produced by each 
kind of animal is shown in the following table: 



Horse 
Cow. , 
Sheep 
Hog.. 



DRY MANURE 



12,000 lbs. 
20,000 " 
760 " 
1,800 " 



LIQUID MANURE 



3,000 lbs. 
8,000 " 
380 " 
1,200 " 



99. How the Value of Manure Is Lost. — The first waste ^ 
of manure results from the failure to save the liquid manure. 
If the urine is not saved, about half of the value of the 



MANURES, FERTILIZERS, AND ROTATION 111 

manure is lost. The next waste occurs when the manure is 
left out in the weather or is not kept properly covered or 
sufficiently wet. A large part of the valuable food materials 
in the manure is in soluble form, so that if the manure is 
left in the rain these are leached out and carried away in 
rain-water. Some of the nitrogen is changed to ammonia 
and passes off to the air in the form of a gas. A large part 
of the other materials of the manure which are so valuable 
in loosening the soil and supporting soil bacteria is slowly 
changed by the oxygen of the air and lost when manure is 
left exposed. If the manure is allowed to become dry, these 
changes and this waste go on more rapidly. In tests made 
at the New Jersey Experiment Station manure exposed to the 
weather lost over fifty per cent of its value in four months. 
At the Ohio station exposed manure when used on a crop 
was found to have a value of $2.15 per ton, while the value of 
stable manure was $2.96. When twenty-three cents' worth 
of acid phosphate was added to the stable manure its fertil- 
izing value was $4.80 per ton. At Cornell 4,000 pounds of 
manure were exposed from April 25 to September 25, at 
which time it weighed only 1,730 pounds. The nitrogen in 
this manure had fallen from 19.60 to 7.70 pounds, the 
phosphoric acid from 14.80 to 7.70 pounds, the potash 
from 36 to 8.65 pounds. The value of the plant-food mate- 
rials had fallen from $6.46 to $2.38, a loss of sixty-three 
per cent. 

100. How to Save Manures. — The first thing to do toward 
saving all the value of manure is to save the liquid manure, 
either by having a water-proof floor in your stable or by 
keeping sufficient litter in the stable to absorb all urine. 
All manures should be kept under cover until hauled to 



112 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



the field, and never allowed to lie exposed to the air and 
rain. Even under cover the manure needs attention. It 
should be packed down to press out the air and retard the 

action of bacteria, and kept 
wet enough to prevent heat- 
ing, which drives off nitrogen. 
Even when properly wet, 
there will be some giving off 
of nitrogen, and in order to 
save this, the manure heap 
should be covered with loam, 
sawdust, or straw. Loam is 
best, as this absorbs thir- 
teen pounds of nitrogen to 
the ton, whereas sawdust ab- 
sorbs eight and straw only 
four. Still better results are 
obtained from manure if a 
compost is made. The 
United States Department 
of Agriculture gives the fol- 
lowing directions for making 
a compost heap and applying 
the compost to the land. 

101. How to Make a Com- 
post Heap. — *' Locate the 
compost heap in an old shed, 
or build a shed, with any kind of cheap material for a roof. 
Spread on the ground a layer of stable manure 8x10 feet, 
6 inches deep. Over this spread 100 pounds of acid phos- 
phate or ground phosphate rock. The phosphate rock 




Fig. 66. The top picture shows the 
usual method of saving manure, by 
which about one-half of its value is 
lost by leaching and by giving off ni- 
trogen to the air. The stable at the 
bottom has a cement floor to save the 
valuable liquid manure, and a cover 
to protect the manure from rain and 
leaching. This farmer also wets the 
manure occasionally, adds rock phos- 
phate, and covers the pile with loam 
and straw to catch the nitrogen that is 
set free. — After Duggar. 



MANURES, FERTILIZERS, AND ROTATION 113 

answers as well as the acid phosphate and costs about half 
as much. Continue these alternate layers until the manure 
is used up, or until the pile has become inconveniently 
high. To these layers might be added straw, leaves, mould, 
or other litter, adding 100 pounds ground phosphate rock 
to each ton of material used. Be sure to wet all thoroughly. 
When the compost heap is completed, cover it about 4 
inches deep with good loam or with forest mould. 

102. How to Apply the Compost. — "When applying two 
tons per acre or less, the best results can be obtained by 
putting the compost in the furrow and bedding out on it. 
Be careful not to bury too deep, especially on clay soils. 
When using more than two tons per acre, it is better to 
scatter broadcast. 

"Bearing in mind the supplemental value of the cow-pea, 
it is safe to say that by using compost at least fifty per cent 
can be added to the productiveness of the average one- 
hundred-acre farm, and that simply at the cost of a few tons 
of acid phosphate and a little labor. With the barn-yard 
manure and with the cow-pea at his service to save and gather 
nitrogen for him, the average farmer is simply wasting his 
money when he continues to buy nitrogen in commercial 
fertilizer when he could easily produce all that his land 
needs upon his farm." 

103. Green Manures. — In addition to turning under stub- 
ble, it is sometimes advisable to turn under an entire crop. 
The green crop thus plowed under is called green manure. 
Green manuring provides a method of rapidly adding humus 
to the soil. Among the best crops for this purpose are cow- 
peas, velvet-beans, soy-beans, clover, and sorghum. Usually 
crops should be fairly mature before being turned under. 



114 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

Such green manuring should not take place immediately be- 
fore the planting of a new crop, especially one of small grain. 
Cover crops are frequently sown in the fields at the last cul- 
tivation, grazed during the winter, and turned under in the 
spring. This is an especially valuable practice, as it furnishes 
grazing, saves the land from loss of fertility in winter, and 
adds valuable humus besides. All green manure should be 
turned under at least two weeks before the new crop is 
planted. 

104. Green Manure or Stock Feeding. — The question is 
often asked whether it pays better to plow under a crop or 
feed it to stock, put the manure on the land, and sell the stock. 
This depends upon so many circumstances that no general 
answer can be given. As over eighty per cent of the fertilizing 
elements of the crop is left in the manure after being fed to 
stock, it is usually wise to pass the crop through stock before 
putting it into the soil. But, if the soil is very low in organic 
matter, the quickest way to replenish this is to plow under 
an entire crop, as more than fifty per cent of the organic mat- 
ter is lost when fed. In each case one would have to consider 
the needs of the soil, the work involved in each method, the 
access to markets, and other factors before he could intel- 
ligently decide which procedure would pay best. This will 
be further discussed under Animal Husbandry. 

105. Plants that Add Nitrogen to the Soil.— Although 
there are millions on millions of tons of free nitrogen in the 
air and circulating in the soil, four-fifths of the air being ni- 
trogen, plants cannot use this as food material. It must 
first be made into a soluble compound. You have learned 
that certain bacteria in the soil can take free nitrogen and 
help to make it into a soluble nitrogen compound. The 



MANURES, FERTILIZERS, AND ROTATION 115 




Fig. 67. This shows the nitrogen-flxing bacteria in 
the cells of the root tubercle of a legume. 



scientists have found that there are certain plants upon the 
roots of which these nitrogen-fixing bacteria thrive. These 
plants are the legumes (leg'umz), such as peas, clovers, pea- 
nuts, alfalfa, bur-clover, soy-beans, velvet-beans, and vetch. 
If you will examine the roots of these plants, you will see lit- 
tle wart-Hke nodules scattered over them. These are called 
tubercles (tu'ber-klz), and contain millions of these bacteria. 
The plant feeds on the nitrogen compound made by the 
bacteria on its 
roots, and de- 
posits the nitro- 
gen in its stem, 
leaves, roots, 
and fruit. If 
the whole plant 
is later turned 

under, all this soluble nitrogen is added to the soil. When 
the pea-vines that would produce a ton of hay are turned 
under, $10.00 worth of plant-food material is added to the 
soil. The roots alone, if left in the soil, add greatly to its 
fertility, as about thirty per cent of the plant-food mate- 
rial is in them. The growing of legumes and the production 
of barn-yard manure offer the most economic method by 
which the farmer may steadily improve his land and in- 
crease his income. 

106. The Most Deficient Food Element Sets the Limit 
of the Crop. — We know that one variety of crop uses more 
of one substance and another variety uses more of some 
other substance. We know also that some land is well sup- 
pHed with one substance but lacking in some other. In 
such a case the material of which there is a plentiful supply 



116 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



cannot be used by the plant any longer than the supply of 
the deficient element holds out. For example, if a soil is 
deficient in nitrogen but well supplied with potash and phos- 
phorus, the crop can use no more of the potash and phos- 
phorus after the small sup- 
ply of nitrogen has been 
used up, because the plant 
can make no new growth 
unless its food contains its 
proper proportion of nitro- 
gen. There may be enough 
potash and phosphorus in 
a soil to produce one hun- 
dred bushels of corn to the 
acre, but if there is only 
enough nitrogen to produce 
twenty bushels, then that 
is all the field will yield. 
The most deficient element 
sets the limit of the crop. 
107. What is a Com- 
mercial Fertilizer? — What 
has been said above shows 
why at times it is more economical to supply just one food 
element rather than to add a manure which contains many 
elements. At other times special combinations of elements 
can be got together that meet the needs of a particular soil 
and a special crop more economically than would manure. 
If we have a field slightly deficient in phosphoric acid, but 
amply supplied with nitrogen and potassium, then we should 
merely waste the seven pounds of nitrogen and nine pounds 




Fig. 68. This shows the tubercles on 
the roots of a soy-bean. 

Courtesy of the U. S. Department of 
Agriculture. 



MANURES, FERTILIZERS, AND ROTATION 117 



of potash in the manure if we apphed a ton of manure in order 
to secure the five pounds of phosphoric acid in it. To meet 
such conditions artificially prepared materials are applied 
to the soil for the purpose of supplying the especially 
needed plant-food ma- 
terial or materials. Such 
artificially prepared ma- 
terials are called com- 
mercial fertilizers. While 
occasionally other ele- 
ments need to be sup- 
plied, practically all 
fertilizers supply either 
nitrogen, potassium, or 
phosphorus, or some 
combination of these. 
We shall now give the 
names and a brief ac- 
count of the chief ma- 
terials used in commer- 
cial fertilizers, show how 
to calculate the value 

of mixed fertilizers, how to find out what fertilizers to use, 
and how to prepare them. 

108. Fertilizers That Supply Nitrogen. — ^The usual com- 
mercial fertilizers furnishing nitrogen are sodium nitrate, sul- 
phate of ammonia, cotton-seed meal, dried blood, and tankage. 
Nitrate of soda is found on the west coast of Chile. It con- 
tains about fifteen per cent of nitrogen in a very soluble form, 
and therefore should be added only in small amounts and 
while the plants are growing. If put on the soil long before 




Fig. 69. Just as the tub can be filled no 
higher than the shortest stave, so the crop 
can grow no larger than is allowed by the 
most deficient necessary element in the soil. — 
After Halligan. 



118 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

the plants are ready to use it, the nitrate will be dissolved 
and washed away by the rain. When spread broadcast over 
the ground, it is so rapidly dissolved and carried down by the 
moisture in the soil that young plants will show the effect of 
it and become greener within a week of the time it is applied. 
It is especially valuable for use with plants growing during 
the cool weather. Sulphate of ammonia is obtained from 
coal, and contains about twenty per cent of nitrogen. It 
does not wash out of the soil so readily as nitrate of soda. 
Cotton-seed meal is what is left of the cotton-seed after the 
oil and hulls are removed. It contains nearly seven per cent 
of nitrogen, together with some phosphate and potash. As 
the meal must decompose before the nitrogen is in a form 
that the plant can take in, it should be put into the ground 
before the crop is planted or at the time of planting. Dried 
blood and tankage are materials coming from slaughter- 
pens, the blood containing eight to thirteen per cent and the 
tankage six to ten per cent of nitrogen. These must be 
changed in the soil also before the plant can use them, and 
hence are usually applied to crops that have a long growing 
season. 

109. Fertilizers Supplying Phosphoric Acid.— ^The prin- 
cipal source from which the phosphorus in commercial fer- 
tilizer is obtained is rock phosphate. Beds of this are found in 
Tennessee, South Carolina, Florida, and Canada. This rock 
is ground and sold as rmv phosphate. In this condition it is 
not soluble in pure water, and hence cannot furnish the 
plant-food material, but in a soil supplied with bacteria and 
humus it is slowly changed into a soluble form and affords 
the cheapest supply of phosphate for the crop. It must, of 
course, be placed in the soil some time before it is needed by 



MANURES, FERTILIZERS, AND ROTATION 119 

the crop. The ground phosphate rock may also be treated 
with sulphuric acid before being put into the soil, and in 
this way the phosphorus changed to soluble form. Rock 
that has been so treated is sold as acid phosphate, and con- 
tains usually from twelve to sixteen per cent phosphoric acid. 
This, although soluble, does not leach out of the soil so read- 
ily as a nitrate, and is best applied before or at the time of 
planting. Bones are another source of phosphatic fertilizer. 
Bone is sold ground as bone meal, steamed as steamed bone, 
and burned as bone ash. The raw bone contains eighteen to 
twenty-two per cent phosphoric acid and two and one-half 
to three and one-half per cent nitrogen. Steamed bone and 
bone ash contain more of the phosphoric acid. 

110. Fertilizers Supplying Potash. — The important mate- 
rials supplying potash are kainit, muriate of potash, and sul- 
phate of potash. Kainit contains twelve to fifteen per cent 
potash, and the other two about fifty per cent each. These 
are readily soluble. 

111. How Fertilizers Are Valued. — The laws of Texas and 
many other States require that all commercial fertilizers be 
plainly labelled. The label must state what per cent of the 
different food materials the manufacturer guarantees to be 
in the fertilizer. The State chemist each year finds what 
each of the fertilizing materials costs at retail in the large 
markets of the world and publishes this price as the standard 
of value for that year. For instance the standard values set 
for 1910-11 were: 

PER LB, 

Available phosphoric acid in mixed fertilizers and bat guano . . 6 

Total phosphoric acid in tankage and bone 4 

Nitrogen in mixed fertilizers and bat guano 20 

Nitrogen in bone and tankage 19 

Potash 6 



120 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

With these prices known it is easy to tell the value of a 
mixed fertilizer. For example, if a ton of fertilizer contain? 
four per cent available nitrogen, eight per cent available 
phosphoric acid, and two per cent potash, its value can be 
found as follows: 

1 ton = 2,000 lbs. 

4% of 2,000 lbs. = 80 lbs. 80 lbs. nitrogen at $0.20 = $16 . 00 

8% of 2,000 lbs. = 160 lbs. 160 lbs. phos. acid at 0.06 = 9 . 60 

2% of 2,000 lbs. = 40 lbs. 40 lbs. potash at 0.06 = 2.40 

Total $28.00 

In this way we learn that the ton of fertilizer contains 80 
pounds of nitrogen worth $16, 160 pounds of phosphoric 
acid worth $9.60, and 40 pounds potash worth $2.40, which 
gives a total value of $28. This represents the value of 
the unmixed materials. A fair selling price would require 
that to this be added the cost of mixing, sacks, transporta- 
tion, and a reasonable profit for the manufacturer. Before 
buying fertilizers one should write to the agricultural ex- 
periment station for the bulletin giving the fertilizer law, the 
valuations of materials for the year, and the analyses of the 
various brands sold in the State. The commercial value dis- 
cussed above is no measure of the agricultural value of the 
fertilizer. It matters not what fertilizing materials may cost, 
if a ton of fertiUzer caused an increase of forty bushels of 
wheat, and wheat sold at a dollar, the value of that fertilizer 
to the farmer would be forty dollars, less the additional ex- 
pense of handling the fertilizer and the extra forty bushels 
of wheat. 

112. Complete and Incomplete Fertilizers. — A fertilizer 
that contains nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash is called 
a complete fertilizer. One containing only one or two of 



MANURES, FERTILIZERS, AND ROTATION 



121 



these is called incomiMe. Most commercial fertilizers are 

complete or mixed. As each soil and crop is likely to have 

need of a different combination of the fertilizing materials 

it is usually best not to buy a complete fertilizer, but to 

determine first what 

the field needs and 

then to purchase 

these materials only 

and mix your own 

fertilizer. 

113. How to De- 
termine What Fer- 
tilizer is Needed. — 
By analyzing the soil 
and crop the chemist 
can tell what food ele- 
ments they contain, 
and what the plant 
takes out of the soil. 
In this way he is of 
great help in finding 
out what fertilizer to 
use. But the effects 
of bacteria and of 
several other things 
which influence the crop are not considered when the chemist 
analyzes the soil and the crop, so that his analyses, while they 
help, cannot tell us exactly what fertilizer to use on a par- 
ticular field with some special crop. This is more easily and 
correctly found out by making an experiment on a series of 
small plats in the field. If, for example, you wish to know 




Fig. 70. This shows the effect of the absence 
of nitrogen, potassium, or phosphorus. The pot 
on the left lacks potash, the next lacks nitrate, 
the next lacks neither phosphate, potash, nor 
nitrate, the last lacks phosphate. 
Courtesy of the Texas Experiment Station, College 
Station, Texas. 



122 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



what fertilizer to use in a certain field for corn, select a part 
of the field that fairly represents the soil, and lay off side 
by side a series of plats of one-twentieth of an acre each 
and number them. Plant and cultivate the corn alike in 
each, but put different amounts and varieties of fertihzers 
on each plat in such a manner as is shown in the diagram 
below. The amounts to be used would vary with different 
fields and crops. The amounts in the diagram are given 
merely as illustrations. 



1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 










^ 






^ 


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^ 




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la 




c3 ii 


^ ^ 




<D ^ 




o3 








It 




If! 




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o 




^ o 






m 




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03 t^_ 






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o sx 






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1 


1 


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^ 3 


2 ^ 
^ ^ 




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CO t» 


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CO _Q CO 


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00 to 


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00 r-l lO 



The plats to which nothing is added show what the soil 
will do unaided. The crops on each plat will show just what 
effect is produced by each of the various amounts and kinds 
of fertilizers. If, for example, plat No. 2 showed no increase 
over the unfertilized land, what would that show as to whether 
the soil needed nitrogen? If the crop on No. 5 were better 
than that on No. 4, what would that show? If No. 9 were 
still better than No. 5, what would this show? By using 
various amounts and combinations of the materials one 
can soon learn just what a soil needs to grow any special 
crop. 



MANURES, FERTILIZEBS, AND ROTATION 123 



In addition to 
the use of experi- 
ment plats a great 
deal can be learned 
by looking at the 
growing crop. If 
the crop is small 
and pale, the soil 
needs nitrogen. If 
the stalks and 
leaves are vigorous 
and green, but the 
plant is deficient in 
fruit, there is plenty 
of nitrogen, but 
phosphate is 
needed, as this pro- 
motes fruitage and 
early ripening. If 
the stems are weak 
and the plants tend 
to drop their fruit, 
potash is probably 
needed, as this also 
helps directly in 
developing the fruit 
and promoting the 
general vigor of the 

plant. x\ll of these signs are useful to know, but they do not 
always hold, as other causes may also produce the same ap- 
pearances as those mentioned above. 




Fig. 71. Millet grown on equal and adjoining 
areas. That on the left had no fertilizer and 
produced one ton per acre. That on the right 
was given 200 pounds of potassium chloride per 
acre and produced three tons per acre. The cost 
of treatment was five dollars per acre. The in- 
crease in the crop was worth forty dollars per acre. 
Courtesy of Mr. Louis H. Klaas. 



124 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



114. How to Mix Fertilizers Accurately. — Let us suppose 
that as a result of the fertilizer test it was found that our 
soil needed 160 pounds of 15 per cent nitrate of soda, and 
200 pounds of 14 per cent acid phosphate per acre. As 15 




Fig. 72. On the right no manure or fertilizer used, and no corn produced. 
On the left 200 pounds of potassium chloride used, with yield of eighty bushels 
per acre. 

Courtesy of Mr. Louis H. Klaas. 



per cent of 160 is 24, and 14 per cent of 200 is 28, we see that 
our soil really needs 24 pounds of nitrogen and 28 pounds 
of phosphoric acid per acre. Now suppose, instead of using 
nitrate of soda to supply the nitrogen and acid phosphate 
to supply the phosphoric acid, we wished to use cotton-seed 
meal to furnish the nitrogen and steamed bone to furnish 
the phosphoric acid. Let us then see how many pounds of 
cotton-seed meal will be required to furnish 24 pounds of 
nitrogen, and how many pounds of steamed bone will be 
required to furnish 28 pounds of phosphoric acid. In 100 
pounds of cotton-seed meal we know that there are 7 pounds 
of nitrogen. In order to secure 24 pounds of nitrogen we 



MANURES, FERTILIZERS, AND ROTATION 125 

must take as many hundred pounds of meal as there are 
sevens contained in 24 (24 -^- 7 = 3.43). We therefore need 
343 pounds of cotton-seed meal. Likewise, we know that 
in 100 pounds of steamed bone there are 30 pounds of phos- 
phoric acid. In order to secure 28 pounds of phosphoric 
acid you would need as many hundred pounds of steamed 
bone as 30 is contained in 28, or twenty-eight-thirtieths of a 
hundred. Twenty-eight-thirtieths of 100 is 93. Hence we 
need 93 pounds of steamed bone. We see then that 343 
pounds of 7 per cent cotton-seed meal are equivalent to 
160 pounds of 15 per cent nitrate of soda, as a source of 
nitrogen, and that 93 pounds of 30 per cent steamed bone 
are equivalent to 200 pounds of 14 per cent acid phosphate. 
In this way it is easy to mix your own fertilizers at home, 
and secure just what is desired without paying for other 
materials that your land may not need, paying the manu- 
facturer's profit and the freight on the useless material put 
in as a "filler" in mixed fertilizers. 

115. Rotation of Crops. — Each crop takes certain kinds 
of matter out of the soil, some taking more of one element 
and some more of another. If any crop which took a great 
deal of a certain element out of the soil were grown year 
after year on the same land, you can easily see what would 
result. Seeing what would necessarily result, the wise 
farmer does not grow the same crop on his land year after 
year, but follows one crop with a different kind that draws 
largely from a different element in the soil, or encourages the 
growth of favorable bacteria which enrich the soil. The 
following of one kind of crop by a different one in a regularly 
arranged order is called crop rotation (ro-ta'shun) . There is 
no one best rotation for all farms, as this depends on the 
nature of the soil, the climatic conditions, and the system of 



126 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

farming; that is, whether it is a stock farm, dairy farm, 
cane, grain, or diversified farm. Under any system of farm- 
ing, the wise farmer must practise rotation, but he himself 
must study out the best system of rotation for his situation. 
The following general principles should be followed: 1, the 
succeeding crops should take different elements from the 
soil; 2, each crop should leave the land in good condition 
for the following crop; 3, some of the crops should put back 
into the soil humus and needed food materials, such as nitro- 
gen; 4, the land should never lie long bare to be blown or 
baked, or have the plant food in it washed out by heavy 
rains. 

116. A Good Three-Year Rotation. — The following is a 
good three-year rotation well suited to most Southern farms : 

First year, cotton, followed by a cover crop, such as bur- 
clover or rescue-grass. 

Second year, corn with cow-peas or soy-beans sowed in 
the rows at the last cultivation. In very dry sections the 
legumes are sown sooner. 

Third year, oats, followed by cow-peas or pea-nuts. If the 
farmer wishes to grow more cotton or more corn this crop is 
grown two years instead of one, making a four-year rotation. 

117. Advantages of Crop Rotation. — ^The practice of a 
well-planned rotation of crops has the nine following advan- 
tages : 

1. It keeps the soil in better mechanical condition for 
plant growth. The continuous growth of one crop, such as 
cotton or corn, causes the soil finally to run together and get 
hard. 

2. Crops differ as regards their food requirements. Cer- 
tain crops would remove from the soil large amounts of one 



MANURES, FERTILIZERS, AND ROTATION 127 

element, whereas other crops would remove large amounts 
of a different element. In growing different crops, no one 
element is so rapidly exhausted from the soil. 

3. Some plants increase the supply of organic matter 
and nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil. This is true of 
legumes, such as clover, pea-nuts, and cow-peas. A rota- 
tion of crops will permit the growth of these soil-improving 
crops. 

4. Some plants are deep-rooted, while others are shallow- 
rooted. By alternating the deep-rooted with the shallow- 
rooted plants, a portion of the food materials in the subsoil 
is used. 

5. Where crops are grown in rotation, less commercial 
fertilizer is needed. That which is applied will bring more 
profitable returns than where no rotation is practised. 

6. A good rotation provides for making more manure, 
because it grows crops for the feeding of live-stock. The 
wise farmer does not sell his hay and roughage, but feeds it 
to animals and sells the animals. The animals bring in 
the cash, and, in the manure they make, leave eighty per 
cent of the plant food to be put back into the soil. 

7. Plant diseases and insect enemies do less damage when 
crops are grown in rotation. 

8. When one crop has been grown on the same field for 
many years, it sometimes ceases to thrive in that soil. This 
fact is, in certain cases, due to a kind of soil sickness, which 
is now thought to be probably caused by poisons which 
that particular crop gives off to the soil. While these 
poisons hurt this particular crop, they do not necessarily 
harm others, therefore their injurious effects are avoided by 
rotation. 



128 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



9. A good rotation gives the farmer an income during all 
seasons of the year, as well as keeping his labor profitably 
employed all the year. 

118. Results of Experiments in Rotation. — At the Louisi- 
ana Experiment Station a three-year rotation, consisting of 
first year corn, second year oats, followed by cow-peas, third 

year cotton, was 
carried out for 
eleven years. At 
the end of this 
time the yield was 
from twelve to 
twenty-five per 
cent greater than 
at the beginning 
of the rotation. 
This was where 



Average Yield Wheat 12 Years With 
Rotation, 28.6 Bu. per Acre 



^^^^^ 



Average Yield Wheat 12 Years WiTHOtiT 
Rotation, 12.6 Bu. per Acre 



Fig. 73. This shows the yield of wheat, with and 
without rotation, at Rothamsted Experiment Station, 
in tests extending over forty-eight years. 



no manure was 
added. In a part 
of the field in 
which manure 
was added, the 
increase was still greater. At the famous Rothamsted Ex- 
periment Station, in England, wheat was grown for forty- 
eight years without rotation in one part of a field, and in 
another part it was grown in a four-year rotation for the same 
time. The average yield per year for the twelve crops grown 
in the rotation was 28.6 bushels per acre, while the average 
yield for the same twelve years on that part of the field 
on which rotation was not practised was only 12.6 bushels 
per acre. In a similar experiment there, barley yielded in 



MANURES, FERTILIZERS, AND ROTATION 129 

rotation an average of 2,960 pounds per acre, but without 
rotation yielded only 1,735 pounds per acre. 

The farmer who does not practise rotation, then, greatly 
lessens his yearly income from his farm, and gradually ex- 
hausts his soil, thus making the farm less and less valuable 
each year. On the other hand, the farmer who carries out 
a wisely planned rotation increases his yearly income, and, 
by building up the fertility of his soil, adds each year to the 
value of the farm itself. 



QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES 

56. Find in your neighborhood an illustration of the following: 1, rock 

surface with no soil; 2, rock broken by expansion from heat; 
3, soil made by water deposit; 4, soil made by vegetable decay. 

57. Carefully w^eigh and record the weight of a vessel holding a gallon 

or more. Catch one gallon of muddy surface water that is flow- 
ing off after a rain. Put this in the weighed vessel, evaporate 
the water and weigh the vessel again with all dry deposit in it. 
How much solid material did that water carry per gallon? 

58. Bring in samples of such soils as can be found in your neighborhood 

and classify them according to the varieties given in this chapter. 

59. Make a rough outline map of your farm and show on this the loca- 

tion of the different kinds of soils. Dig down and measure the 
depth of the top soil and state what is the nature of the subsoil 
in each case. 

60. Dig up some subsoil and fill one pot, powder some rock and fill 

another, and fill a third with good top soil. Plant seeds of the 
same variety in each pot, and note and explain the result. 
6L Melt the top from a large can and measure the amount of water 
it will hold. Then press this can, open end down, into the soil. 
Now dig around the can and take it out full of soil in its natural 
position. Strike the soil off level with the top. Then slowly 
add water from your measuring-glass until the can is filled. 
What per cent of the total space in the can was taken up by the 
dry soil? What per cent of the soil space was taken up by air? 



130 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

62. Using equipment similar to that shown in Figure 57, make a rough 

test of the per cent of water that can be held by clay, sandy 
loam, and one other local soil. Weigh the soil before placing in 
the vessel. Weigh a glass containing a little more water than 
the soil can hold. Pour the water slowly on top of the soil and 
set the glass at once beneath the vessel to catch any water that 
the soil will not hold. After the water has ceased coming through, 
weigh the glass containing the water that passed through and 
note how much the soil held in each case. 

63. Using chimneys and vessel similar to those shown in Figure 58, 

find out how^ long it will take water to rise one inch, three inches, 
and six inches by capillary attraction in clay, fine sandy loam, 
and gravel, or three other varieties of soil in your neighborhood. 

64. Fill three one-half gallon jars or cans with the same kind of soil to 

within two inches of the top, pressing soil down lightly. Pour 
in water till the soil is all well moistened, but no water stands on 
top. Cover one with two inches of dry sand, one with two inches 
of dust mulch, and leave the other as it is. Weigh all each day 
for ten days, and record the loss of water from each. 

65. Lay a lump of loaf-sugar in a saucer that has coffee or other colored 

fluid in it. Watch the rate at which the fluid passes through 
the lump. Now place another lump on top of the first 
lump and note the effect of the larger air spaces between 
the two lumps in delaying the passing of the liquid into the top 
lump. 

66. Take samples of different soils, moisten and work into mud balls, 

and allow these to dry. Which soils show most adhesiveness? 
Make a ball of clay. Using the same clay mixed with an equal 
amount of well-decayed organic matter, make another ball. 
Let them dry and note which sticks together better. 

67. Fill two bottles two-thirds full of water, that in one being fresh, 

that in the other being boiled and oil-covered, as explained in 
paragraph 14, in order to shut out the air. Place a rose-cutting 
in each and note progress in rooting of each. What does this 
show? 

68. Plant seeds in two cans containing the same kind of soil. As soon 

as the plants are up, keep the soil in one can soaked with water. 
Give the other water only every two days, allowing no free water 
to remain long in the soil. Make note of the results and explain 
them. 



MANURES^ FERTILIZERS, AND ROTATION 131 

69. Notice whether bare or sod hind loses more by washing in winter. 

Can you tell why land with a crop on it will also lose less in 
winter by leaching than that which is bare? 

70. Construct a level like the one shown in Figure 63, and lay off ter- 

races on a hill-side near by. 

71. Make holes in the bottom of a large deep can, lay a thin cloth on 

the bottom, and fill the can two-thirds full of a mixture of good 
soil and nitrate of soda. Pour on water equal to a six-inch rain- 
fall, catch the water that comes through the bottom, evaporate 
it and see how much has leached out of the soil. 

72. With a clean spade or shovel throw out a shovelful of dirt in a 

field, press a strip of blue litmus paper against the freshly cut 
surface of the moist soil, and see if the soil is acid. Use a piece 
of red litmus paper in the same manner and find whether the 
soil is alkaline or neutral. 

73. If four thousand pounds of manure after being exposed for six 

months weigh only one thousand seven hundred and thirty pounds, 
what per cent of its weight has it lost? 

74. Apply two tons of manure to one acre in your field. Plant and cul- 

tivate this exactly as you do the acre next to it. Keep a record 
of the amount produced on each acre, and find out how much the 
manure added to the crop the first year. The second year add 
no manure to either acre. Plant and cultivate both alike again. 
Note how much the manure affects the crop the second year. 

75. In your field apply well-rotted manure liberally to an experiment 

plat, and turn under in winter to decompose still further before 
the drought begins. Apply the same amount of unrotted manure 
to a similar adjoining plat, but put it in late. Note which re- 
sists the drought best: the soil without humus, that with well- 
disintegrated humus, or that with the rough unrotted manure. 

76. In the experimental garden, or at your home, carry out the test 

shown in the diagram on page 122, and other similar tests. 

77. To produce one hundred bushels of corn, one hundred and fifty 

pounds of nitrogen, fifty-two pounds of phosphoric acid, and 
eighty-five pounds of potash are required. How can you pre- 
pare a fertilizer to supply the above amounts of food materials, 
using cotton-seed meal, acid phosphate, and kainit or muriate 
of potash? 

78. Can you think of another good reason for practising rotation be- 

sides the reasons given in this chapter? 



132 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

79. Is this a good rotation : first year, cotton; second year, wheat, fol- 

lowed by corn; third year, oats, followed by cane? If not, what 
is wrong with it? 

80. Plan a good three-year rotation for a farm that raises hogs and 

cattle, and is in the moist belt. Explain why your rotation is 
good. 

81. Plan a good three-year rotation for the same kind of farm in the 

dry belt. Explain why this rotation is good. 

82. Make a list for each of your father's fields, showing what has grown 

on it during each year for the last four years. Study the list for 
each field, and state whether the rotation practised was wise or 
not, and why. 

83. Ask your father to allow you to carry out your three-year rotation 

on a part of his land. Keep an account of the profits from the 
land each year. Keep an account also for an equal number of 
acres of the same kind of land adjoining this plat on which no 
rotation is practised and compare results. Also note the fertility 
of each plat at the end of the rotation, as is shown by the crop of 
the following year. 



REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING 

* "Productive Soils," W. W. Wier. 

* "Soils and Fertilizers," T. L. Lyon. 
"Agricultural Geology," F. V. Emerson. 

* "SoUs," S. W. Fletcher. 

* "Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life," H. Snyder. 
"Fertilizers," E. B. Voorhees. 

"Physics of Agriculture," F. H. King. 

"Soils and Fertilizers," H. Snyder. 

"Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture," C. G. Hopkins. 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

No. 144. "Rotation of Crops." 

No. 192. "Barn- Yard Manure." 

Nos. 222 and 225. "Home Mixing of Fertilizers." 

No. 237. "Lime and Clover." 

No. 245. "Renovation of Worn-out Soils." 

No. 259. "Use of Commercial Fertilizers." 



MANURES, FERTILIZERS, AND ROTATION 133 

No. 278. ''Leguminous Crops for Green Manuring." 
No. 327. "Conservation of Natural Resources." 
No. 921. ''The Principles of Liming of Soils." 

Experiment Station Bulletins : 

No. 186. "Elementary Exercises in Agriculture." 

Bureau of Plant Industry, general publications: 
"Fertilizers," 1910. 
"Farm Fertilizers," "Barn-yard Manure," 1911. 

Texas Experiment Station Bulletin : 

No. 167. "Commercial Fertilizers and Their Use." 

No. 212. "The Availability of Phosphoric Acid in Rock Phos- 
phate." 

No. 243. "Need of Texas Soils for Lime." 

No. 284. "Availability of Potash in Some Soil-Forming Min- 
erals." 

No. 287. "Availability of Some Nitrogenous and Phosphatic 
Materials." 

No. 289. "The Effect of Rock Phosphate Upon the Corn Possi- 
bilities of the Phosphoric Acid of the Soil." 

The Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas Extension Depart- 
ment Bulletin: 
No. 4. "Fertilizing for Heavy Yields of Corn or Cotton." 



CHAPTER VI 
TILLAGE AND FARM IMPLEMENTS 

119. Introductory. — In our study of the soil we have 
learned that the proper turning and pulverizing of the soil 
make it much more favorable to the growth of the crop. 
Such fitting- of the land for the more favorable growth of 
plants is called tillage (till'aj). The earliest form of tillage 
was the breaking of the soil in order to plant the crop. 
Crops were planted broadcast and not cultivated. Early 
implements used in tillage were hoes made of shells tied to 
poles and forked sticks used as plows, drawn by men and 
women. Later better plows were made of wood and beasts 
of burden were used to pull them. Man learned to put 
an iron tip on his wooden plow over a thousand years ago, 
but progress has been so slow that such plows were still 
used about a hundred years ago. These were finally sur- 
passed by the iron plow, which has been so rapidly improved 
during the past fifty years that we now have various forms 
of sulky plows and cultivators, and the great steam plows. 
These improvements have been made very largely by Amer- 
icans, who lead the world in the invention and manufacture 
of farm implements. It is said that it required four and 
six-tenths days for the old Roman farmer to produce a 
bushel of wheat. With his new implements and methods, 
the American of 1830 could do this with three hours' labor, 
but the present-day American with yet better tools can do 
it with nine minutes' exertion. 

134 



TILLAGE AND FARM IMPLEMENTS 135 

120. The Result of Improved Implements. — The result of 
this lessening of labor and increasing of efficiency by im- 
proved implements has been to enable the intelligent farmer 
to raise far larger crops and still have a great deal more 
freedom from mere physical labor. By using his spare time 
for study, the farmer is rapidly becoming educated and 
learning each year better and better methods. In 1800 
when practically everybody in America (ninety-seven per cent) 
lived on farms, the average wheat yield was only five and a 
half bushels per capita. Now, with only about one-third of 
our population living on farms, the average per capita yield 
is over ten bushels. If all farmers used improved imple- 
ments the per capita yield would be still larger. 

121. The Advantages of Tillage. — A great many of the 
advantages of tillage are already known to you, but let us 
bring these together and mention additional ones. Good 
tillage accomplishes the following things . 

1. The soil particles are separated and broken and the 
soil made finer and deeper, so that the roots of the plant 
can penetrate more easily and the particles disintegrate 
and turn loose their food materials for the plant more 
rapidly. 

2. It brings up new materials from below and turns vege- 
tation and other matter under, in this way adding to the 
food material available for the crop. 

3. When soil is cold and moist it aids the evaporation of 
water and the admission of air, which warms up the soil 
earlier in spring 

4. It enables the soil to hold more water and more air. 

5. During dry weather top cultivation conserves the water 
in the soil. 



136 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

6. It prevents the growth of weeds that would rob the 
crop of food and moisture. 

Just how tillage does all these things was made so plain 
in the chapter on the soil that there is no need to repeat it 
here. It is necessary only to add a few general principles 
of tillage. 

122. When to Plow. — A large part of the labor of the 
crop should be done before planting. If roots are to have 

a bed that is easily 
penetrated, if there 




^^^^^Sl^^^i^ is to be a plentiful 



supply of water, air, 

Fig. 74. This shows how the soil is loosened onr? ff\r\A Tno+c»T»io1 
and the air is caught in it by plowing. ^^^ ^^^^ material 

for the crop, the soil 
must be thoroughly broken before the crop is planted. As 
the freshly turned soil is full of large pores that interfere 
with the passage of capillary water in the soil, plowing 
should be done some time before the seeds are sown, in order 
to give the soil time to settle. When this cannot be done, 
the disk harrow and roller should follow the plow to press 
down the soil. If vegetation or manure is turned under, 
several weeks should be allowed for decomposition before 
seeds are planted. After all plowing the harrow should 
be used at once, as the clods are much more easily broken 
then, and water will be rapidly lost by evaporation if a 
mulch is not thus made on top of the soil. After all rolling 
the harrow should also follow in order to provide the needed 
mulch. 

123. Plowing the Subsoil. — If any subsoil is to be turned 
up, this should usually be done in the fall, when it is 
drier than at other seasons, and when more time remains for 




TILLAGE AND FARM IMPLEMENTS 137 

it to be acted upon by bacteria, humus, and air before 
the crop is planted. While it is wise to deepen gradually 
the top soil by turning up about an inch of subsoil each year, 
it is usually unwise to turn up two or three inches of hard 
subsoil at once, as it must be disintegrated and considerably 
changed before the 
plant can use it. 
When it is desirable 
to deepen the seed- 
bed at once in order 
that it may hold 
more water, or lor ^^^ „^ ^j^^ ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ pj^^ causes the lay- 

Other purposes it is ^^^ °^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ other and thus separates 
^ ^ ' _ the mass into smaller particles. 

best to use a subsoil 

plow that breaks up the subsoil but does not bring it to 

the surface. 

124. When Too Wet or Too Dry to Plow.— Plowing 
should never be done when the land is either too wet or too 
dry. Plowing land when too wet may injure it for many 
years. It is not easy to learn from a book how to tell when 
land is right for plowing. If it sticks together and the 
furrow slice shows a shiny, polished surface it is too wet. If 
it breaks into hard clods that do not easily pulverize it is 
too dry. Sandy land does not need to be so dry as other 
land when plowed. 

125. Soil Should Not Be Long Left Bare.— It is usually 
unwise to plow up the soil and leave it long without a crop 
to cover it and prevent the loss of food materials to the air 
and through leaching. 

126. When and How to Cultivate. — While each crop has 
its own peculiarities which one must know in order to 



138 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



y. — 



cultivate it properly, there are a few general principles that 
apply to all crops. All of these are easy to reason out now 
that we know what we do about the soil and about plant 
growth. Since it is through the tender root hairs in the new 
parts of the roots that food materials are taken in, then 
plainly we should not cultivate deep enough or near enough 

the plant to disturb 
these unless it 



IS 

our purpose to stop 
the plant's growth. 
Since the valuable 
soil water is con- 
stantly coming up 
through the capil- 
lary tubes in the soil 
and being evapo- 
rated at the surface, 
and since a closely 
packed crust tends 
to increase evapora- 
tion and to retard 
the circulation of 
air in the soil, we should never allow this crust to form in 
our fields, but should plow after eyevy rain, or as often as 
is necessary to keep the soil open and a dust mulch on the 
ground. If we have to plant a crop on soil that is wet or 
liable to get soaked, it is plain that we should first bed up 
the land and plant on the bed so that the roots of the young 
plants will not be drowned by the spring rains. On the 
other hand, if the soil is dry or liable to such drought as will 
dry out the moisture in the upper soil, we should list or 



Fig. 76. In soil that is too wot or liable to be- 
come wet the crop is planted above the level of 
the ground; where the soil is dry or liable to bo- 
come dry the crop is planted below the level 
of the ground. Can you see why this is done ? 



TILLAGE AND FARM IMPLEMENTS 139 

plant below the surface, so that the roots of the plants will 
be deep down in the moist soil. Since weeds and grass rob 
a soil of water and food materials that the crop should have, 
obviously we should always cultivate in time to prevent or 
kill while very young all grass and weeds. Other special 




Fig. 77. Four types of plows: 1, a breaker. 2, a general-purpose plow 
for use inlight land. 3, a black-land plow. 4, a middle burster. 

directions with regard to tillage will be learned as we dis- 
cuss the various farm implements and crops. 

127. Plows. — There are two general classes of plows, 
the mould-board plow and the disk plow. The mould- 
board ploiv is the oldest type. With this the soil is cut by 
the share and turned upside down and broken by the curved 
inould-hoard. The amount of turning done depends upon the 
shape and size of the mould-board. If there is fresh sod to be 
broken and the land is heavy, the mould-board is usually less 
curved, as in this way the plow turns the soil over less and 
pulls easier. When the object is to turn materials under the 
soil the more curved mould-board is used. When it is desired 
to throw the soil out on both sides a still different type called 
a middle burster is used. All of these types are easily under- 
stood from Figure 77. The very interesting way in which 
the curved mould-board tears the soil apart and crumbles it 
by sliding the layers of soil on each other is well shown in 
Figure 75. Bisk jjIows are shaped very differently from 
mould-board plows, the cutting and turning being done by 



140 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



a circular instrument which rolls instead of sliding. For 
this reason they have some advantages in breaking sod and 
in plowing trashy land. They can be used also in soil that 
is too dry and hard or too sticky to be worked with a mould- 
board plow. The two types are about equally hard to 




'Fig. 78. Disk sulky plow. 



pull under ordinary circumstances. Where fields are large 
and turns do not have to be made often, sidhy ploivs, which 
are made in both mould-board and disk types, are usually to 
be preferred. If properly adjusted they pull as easily as do 
walking-plows, do somewhat better work, and yet allow 
the operator to ride. 

128. Harrows. — The implements used for pulverizing the 
clods, smoothing the surface, and putting on a dust mulch 
are numerous and varied, each with its peculiar advantages 
and disadvantages. Where the broken land is rough and 
full of clods, or needs levelling and packing, the disk harrow 



TILLAGE AND . FARM IMPLEMENTS 



141 



is especially valuable. This harrow may be set to cut from 
one inch to three inches. In loose sandy land it is not en- 




PiG. 79. Disk harrow. 



tirely satisfactory because of sinking so deeply into the soil. 
The spring toothed harrow has a number of strong curved 




Fig. 80. Spike-tooth harrow. 



steel springs, with teeth about two and one-half inches 
wide on the ends. These teeth are so arranged that they 



142 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 




Pig. 81. Acme harrow. 




may be set to run two to three inches deep, thus breaking 
clods and fining the soil. The spring toothed harrow is often 
used immediately 
iifter the disk har- 
row to further work 
down a rough soil. 

If much vegetation Fig. 82. Plank drag. 

has been turned un- 

d^r, this harrow is unsatisfactory, as the teeth pull much 

of it out of the soil again. When 
used after the disk harrow or 
on plowed soil that is in good 
condition, the spike-tooth harrow 
jKilverizes and levels the surface 
soil very effec- 
tively. The 
Acme harrow is 
also especially 

Pi.;. 83. Fourteen-tooth harrow. Valuable m pul- 




1 
i 



TILLAGE AND FARM IMPLEMENTS 



143 



verizing the surface, but is not satisfactory in stonj' soil or 
where heav\' clods are to be broken. The i^lniik drag servos 

very much the same purpose as 
the Acme harrow in smoothing 
and pulverizing the surface. 

129. Cultivators.— The imple- 
ments used for tilling the soil 
after the crop 
is planted in 
order to pre- 
vent weeds 
and keep the 
surface bro- 
ken are called 
cultivators. 
The spihe-tooth cultivator has a number (usually fourteen) of 
teeth about six inches long by one and one-half wide flattened 




Fig. 84. Five-tooth harrow. 




Fig. 85. Two-row sulky cultivator. 



144 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 




Fig. 86. Single corn and cotton planter. 

somewhat at the end. These are run shallow and are espe- 
cially valuable for breaking the crust and making a dust 
mulch. They do not destroy weeds as well as the other 
varieties of cultivator. The five-toothed cultivator has only 
five teeth, each from three to four inches wide. This culti- 
vator destroys weeds better than the fourteen-toothed one. 




Fia. 87. Double sulky corn and cotton planter. 



TILLAGE AND FARM IMPLEMENTS 



145 




Fig. 88. Manure spreader. 



but pulls harder. It is widely used in potato and corn cult- 
ure. The diverse cultivator has from six to ten long spring- 
like teeth, and does work similar to that done by other 
toothed cultivators. A constantly increasing part of crop 
cultivation, especially in broad, level fields, is being done 
with riding-cultivators, which do practically the same kind 
of work as do similar walking-cultivators. There are usually 
four or six shovels on a one-row cultivator. On a two-row 
cultivator this equipment is simply doubled. These culti- 
vators have made it possible for one man to cultivate from 




n I (\ \/r 



(ff^Tfun 



Fig. 89. Combination garden tool. 



146 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



five to seven acres a day with a single-row cultivator and 
nearly double that amount with a double-row cultivator. 
When the double-row cultivator is to be used, the crop should 
be sown with a double-row planter, to make it certain that 
each pair of furrows runs parallel. 

130. Planters and Reapers. — With a good planter one 
man can now not only plant as much in a day as eight or 




Fig. 90. Corn shredder and silo filler in operation. 
Courtesy of the International Harvester Co. 



ten men can plant by hand, but he can do the work more 
uniformly and better. By this means a large crop can be 
got into the soil in a few days before a favorable season is 
gone. Some of these machines open the soil, plant the seeds, 
add the fertilizer, cover and roll two or three rows at a time. 
They can plant a continuous drill, as of wheat or oats, or 




o » 

a ^ 



4i ^ 

P 

1 



148 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

only at fixed intervals as may be desired. In the same way 
one machine now may do the work of many men in reaping 
the crop, thus not only lessening labor, but enabling the 
farmer to use short favorable seasons to advantage. We 
cannot go into the various types of planting and harvesting 
machines here, but shall mention one. You can learn about 
the others from the references at the end of the chapter. 
The combined corn and cotton planter is an implement that 
may be adjusted to plant either cotton or corn. The corn 
may be listed or planted level, and may be dropped at any 
distance apart that is desired. There are one-row and two- 
row types, the two-row type being especially desirable where 
it is intended later to use a two-row cultivator. Such a 
planter opens the furrow, selects the right number of grains 
from the seed-box, drops them into the right place, covers 
and rolls them. It may have also an attachment for dis- 
tributing fertilizer at the same time. 

131. Manure and Fertilizer Distributors. — Manure and 
fertihzer distributors bring about a saving of labor on the 
farm in the same way that planters do, and should be in more 
general use. Planters are frequently made with a fertilizer 
distributor attached. The handling of manure is a very 
important matter on the farm, which is usually done in a 
manner very wasteful of labor. The manure is handled 
once when thrown into a pile. Then it is thrown into a 
wagon. From the wagon it is thrown in piles on the field, 
then distributed from the piles. All this takes about twice 
the labor that should be used. By having the manure-shed 
conveniently located, and by distributing the manure di- 
rectly from the wagon with a manure spreader, the labor is 
greatly lessened. 



TILLAGE AND FARM IMPLEMENTS 149 

132. Garden Tools. — For work in gardens hand-power 
tools are now made with which the greater part of the work 
of the garden can be done with from one-half to one-tenth 
the labor required with the old-time tools. One such hand- 
power combination wheel tool is shown in Figure 89. With 
such a tool one can turn light soil, plant, distribute fertilizer, 
and cultivate with ease several times as much as with or- 
dinary spades, hoes, and rakes. 

133. The Gasoline-Engine and Farm Machinery. — Gaso- 
line, gas, oil, and hot-air engines are now made that are not 
expensive, and are simple enough to be run by any intelli- 
gent boy. It should not be long before every thoughtful 
farmer has such an engine to pump water, churn, cut and 
grind feed, saw wood, fill silos, and in other ways economize 
labor. 

134. The Care of Machinery. — It is to be regretted that 
so many farmers leave their implements in the field or else- 
where exposed to the weather. All tools and implements 
should be kept under cover protected from sun and rain. 
In this way they are not only in better condition for use 
when wanted, but they last much longer. The cost of a tool- 
shed will soon be repaid by the saving of the implements 
protected. 



QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES 

84. What does tillage add directly to the soil? 

85. Plow one acre in the fall, turning up one inch of subsoil, and plant 

a cover crop. Plow under the cover crop three weeks before 
planting in spring. Follow the plow with the disk and another 
harrow. On an adjoining acre with the same soil break the 
ground as usual in spring. Plant and cultivate both acres alike. 



150 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

Repeat the treatment the next year, and compare the yield of 
the two acres for the two years. 

86. Cultivate ten rows of corn with cultivators running not over two 

inches deep. With five of the rows make the final cultivation 
much deeper, plowing out the middles with a middle burster. 
Note the effect of each treatment on the yield of corn. 

87. Leave five rows of corn in the field without the dust mulch. Keep 

the surface pulverized constantly on the other rows, cultivating 
after each rain, or as often as the surface packs together, and 
compare results. 

88. The teacher should take the class to an implement store, and to 

neighboring farms, and carefully explain each implement. In 
cases in which the actual instrument cannot be seen, the picture 
should be shown. 

89. Make a list of the instruments on your father's farm. State which 

are wasteful of labor. Make a list of such implements as it 
would be an economy for him to purchase. 

90. If a sulky cultivator enables a man to do in one day with two horses 

as much as he could do before in five days with one horse, how 
much is this cultivator worth to him per year? First find the 
number of days per year that such cultivator is generally used, 
then find the cost of a single plow, man, and horse per day, 
and the same for a pair of horses in your neighborhood. 

91. State all the advantages that would come to the South if satisfac- 

tory cotton-picking machines were in use. 

REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING 

The books referred to in the chapter on soils contain discussions of 
tillage and implements. 



CHAPTER VII 

FARM CROPS 

135. Introductory. — ^You have now learned the general 
principles that govern the nutrition, growth, and reproduc- 
tion of plants, and the principles governing the cultivation 
of the soil and the conservation and increase of its fertility. 
These principles are universal; that is, they apply to all 
plants and all soils everywhere all the time. If some new 
plant that man had never cultivated were introduced, we 
should know that in cultivating it all these principles had to 
be observed: for instance, it would take its food materials 
through root hairs as do other plants, and it would manu- 
facture its food out of the same elements. But, whether its 
roots would be deep or shallow, or in what proportion it 
took the different food elements from the soil, or whether the 
plant could stand drought or cold or shade, what was the best 
time to plant, the best method of cultivating and harvesting, 
and so on; all these we should not know. These special 
facts about each individual plant must be known before we 
can most wisely apply our general principles to the raising 
of that crop. If we have thoroughly mastered the impor- 
tant general principles, it wil) be easy to work out a wise plan 
of cultivation for any plant as soon as a few facts about its 
special characteristics and habits are learned. 

To study the special characteristics and habits of all 
plants and apply to each of these the principles of growth and 

151 



152 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

cultivation would take several lifetimes. In this course we 
shall study just a few of the most important farm crops of 
our section, and shall tell you where you can find out about 
the others. 

Cotton 

136. Cotton: Its Importance and Distribution. — Cotton 
leads all other plants in the production of fibre. In many 
respects it is the most important plant on the globe. It fur- 
nishes the clothing for the larger portion of the world's in- 
habitants. The leading countries producing cotton are in 
order of importance: United States, British India, Egypt, 
Russia, China, Brazil, and Peru. The southern United 
States produces about two-thirds of the world's total supply 
of cotton, or from 11,000,000 to more than 15,000,000 bales 
per year. Of this amount Texas alone produces about one- 
fourth, or from 2,750,000 to 3,750,000 bales. 

137. Description. — The wild cotton as now found in 
tropical countries is a perennial bush or tree reaching a 
height of fifteen or twenty feet. Cotton as grown in this 
country is an annual three to seven feet tall. It consists 
of a central solid woody stem called the maiji stem. From 
the joints of this main stem long ascending branches arise. 
These are called primary branches. Along the primary 
branches slender and shorter branches occur on which the 
bolls are attached. These slender branches are known as 
fruiting limhs because on these are borne the bolls. Often 
fruiting limbs are attached also to the main stem. The 
longest primary branches occur near the base of the main 
stem. These decrease in length toward the top of the stem, 
thus making the plant as a whole cone-shaped. In the 



FAKM CROPS 



153 



cluster types of cotton, there are only a few long branches 
near the base of the plant. Above these the fruiting limbs 
are attached directly to the main stem. The holl is a pod 
containing the seed and lint. There are from three to five 
divisions of each boll, the contents of each division being 
called a lock. The number of bolls on a single plant may vary 
from a few to several hundred, depending upon the variety, 
soil, fertility, rainfall, and climate. The cotton-plant under 
normal conditions develops a tap-root, which in a well-drained 





Fig. 92. 



Cotton leaves: A, upland; 
B, sea island. 



Cotton bolls: A, upland; JB, 
island; C, Indian. 



soil may go down to a depth of three or four feet. However, 
if the soil is not well drained, or if the subsoil is very compact, 
this tap-root may go no deeper than nine inches or a foot. 
The lateral roots or feeding roots branch from the tap-root 
at points from one and one-half to four inches below the 
surface of the soil. As the roots develop so near the surface 
of the soil, what kind of cultivation should be given cotton? 
138. Species. — ^There are five species of cotton that are 
Important in the world's agriculture. These are: 

1. American Upland Cotton. This species represents the 
common cotton grown in the southern United States. It in- 
cludes both the short staple and long staple upland cotton. 

2. Sea-Island Cotton. This cotton grows chiefly on the 
inlands and adjacent mainlands of South Carolina and 



154 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



Georgia, though doubtless it would grow in other similar 
locations. It differs from the American upland cotton in 
having longer and more slender limbs, dark seeds free from 




Fig. 93. Showing relative lengths of different varieties of cotton: 
1, upland short staple; 2, upland long staple; 3, sea isla,nd.— After Halligan. 



fuzz, longer and finer lint, and in yielding less per acre. On 
account of its long fibre, this brings a higher price per pound 
of Hnt. 

3. Peruvian Cotton. This is the principal cotton of Egypt. 
It is somewhat closely related to American upland cotton. 



FARM CROPS 



155 



4. Indian Cotton. 
This is cultivated 
largely in southern 
Asia. The Hnt is in- 
ferior to that of 
American cotton. 

5. Bengal Cotton. 
This is also grown in 
India. 

Each of the 
above species con- 
tains a large num- 
ber of varieties dif- 
fering from each 
other as regards such 
characters as size of 
boll, shape of boll, 
length of lint, per 
cent of lint to seed, 
character of branch- 
ing, climatic adapta- 
tion, soil adaptations, 
length of growing 

season, etc. A few of the most common varieties grown in 
the southern United States are Mebane, Triumph, Cook 
Improved, King, Peterkin, Simpkins, Russell, Toole, Allen 
Longstaple, and Rowden. Many fine new varieties are now 
being developed. 

139. Improvement of Cotton. — The common practice of 
planting the ordinary grade of cotton-seed as it comes from 
the gin finally leads to an inferior grade of cotton, as well as 




Fig. 94. Stalk 33 inches high; 102 bolls. 
Courtesy of the N. C. Department of Agriculture. 



156 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



^ 



a decreased yield. Neither can one depend always on buy- 
ing improved seed from some other locality, for a variety 
may be excellent on one kind of soil or under one kind of 
climatic condition and yet produce poor crops on a different 

soil or in a different 
climate. The first 
step in the improve- 
ment of cotton is 
to find by trial a 
good variety that 
is well adapted to 
the locality in 
which it is to be 
grown. The second 
step is to look care- 
fully after the se- 
lection of seed each 
year. The follow- 
ing method is sim- 
ple and practical. 

140. Selecting 
Seed. — At the sec- 
ond picking go 
through the field 
and pick into a bag the seed cotton from the best plants. 
This seed should be selected from plants possessing the fol- 
lowing qualities: '^ 

1. Productiveness, determined by number of bolls per 
plant and size of bolls. 

2. Earliness, indicated by a short-jointed type with basal 
limbs near the ground. 




& 



Fig. 95. A good stalk of cotton. 
Courtesy of the U S. Department of Agriculture. 



FARM CROPS 



157 



3. Freedom from disease, such as boll rot, rust, and cotton 
wilt. 

4. Character of the lint. Plants bearing relatively short, 
coarse lint should be discarded. 

5. Storm- [1 roof 
quality. Bolls that 
open back too wide 
allow the cotton to 
drop out in a storm, 
and those that stand 
straight up do not 
shed water well. 

This cotton 
picked from the 
best plants should 
be ginned separate- 
ly, care being taken 
to see that the gin 
is first cleaned and 
that no mixing oc- 
curs at the gin. 
The selected seed 
is used for planting 
a seed patch, which 
should be large enough to furnish seed for the general 
crop the following year. Each year before the seed plot 
is picked, there should be enough seed selected from the 
best plants to plant the seed plot the next year. Maintain- 
ing in this way the seed plot every year, the selection con- 
tinues and the cotton improves. No cotton farmer can 
afford to neglect the proper selection of his seed. 




Fig. 96. A poor stalk of cotton. 
Courtesy of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



158 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 




141. Soil. — Cotton will grow on almost any type of soil, 
from light sands to stiff clays, if it possesses fertility and is 
well drained. It usually grows best on clays or silty clays. 
In very sandy soils the plants have a tendency to rust. In 
rich moist bottom land cotton very often produces a very 

rank growth with a 
small number of 
bolls. 

142. Rotations.— 
The usual custom in 
the South has been 
the growing of cot- 
ton year after year 
on the same land. 
However, experience 
has demonstrated 
that higher yields 
can be produced 
when cotton is rotated with other crops. The reasons for 
this have been learned by studying the principles governing 
the rotation of crops. There is no one rotation for cotton 
that is best for all conditions. Each farmer must decide for 
himself the rotation which fits his type of soil, climatic 
conditions, and system of farming. A good rotation ap- 
plying to Southern farms in general would be : First year, 
cotton. Second year, corn with cow-peas between the rows 
for seed. Third year, wheat or oats, followed by cow-peas for 
hay. If more corn or more cotton is desired, that crop can be 
grown two years in succession, making a four-year rotation. 
In addition to the above-named crops the farmer should 
grow also when possible a winter cover crop of clover, vetch, 



Fig. 97. Showing the yield of seed and lint 
from selected and unselected cotton-seed. 

Redrawn from Bailey's "Encyclopedia of 
Agriculture." 



FARM CROPS 



159 



or small grain, to protect the soil from washing and leaching, 
and to add organic matter or nitrogen, or both, to the soil. 
143. Fertilizers. — Cotton responds readily to fertilizers. 
The kind and amount of fertilizer to use depends on the 
character of the soil upon which the cotton is grown. Nitro- 
gen and phosphorus 
are the elements 
most commonly 
needed. Potassium 
is present in most 
soils in sufficient 
amount. The most 
economical way to 
keep up the nitrogen 
supply in the soil is 
to grow the cotton 
in a rotation with 
leguminous crops, 
thus securing the ni- 
trogen from the air. 

y „ . . . Fig. 98. Field of cotton in Cherokee County, 

It it IS not practica- Texas, producing one and a half bales per acre. 

ble to grow these leg- ^^"''^'^ ^^ " ^"''^ ""^ ^°"^^-" 

umes, nitrogen may 

be purchased in cotton-seed meal, nitrate of soda, dried blood, 
or tankage. In these materials the nitrogen costs about eigh- 
teen or twenty cents a pound. At this rate a crop of peas 
that would yield one to two tons of hay per acre will if turned 
under put from eight to seventeen dollars' worth of nitrogen 
in the soil besides the still more valuable humus. Phos- 
phorus is bought in acid phosphate or bone phosphate, and 
is not nearly so expensive as the nitrogen. On average soils 




160 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

three hundred to four hundred pounds of fertiUzer per acre, 
made of equal parts of cotton-seed meal and acid phosphate, 
give good results. This is usually applied before or at the 
time of planting. 

144. Preparation of Soil for Planting. — Land intended for 
cotton should be broken from six to eight inches deep, ex- 
cept in the case of extreme sands, where deep plowing is not 
needed, as the soil is already open enough. Care must be 
taken not to turn up too much subsoil at one time, as this 
new soil can give little food materials to the plant until it 
has been exposed to the air and moisture for some time. 
Where the previous plowing has been shallow it is best to 
plow an inch to an inch and a half deeper each year until 
the soil is of sufficient depth. Heavy clay soils are best 
plowed in the late fall or early winter. When plowed in 
the fall a cover crop should be planted to be turned under 
in the spring before the cotton is planted. This necessitates 
plowing twice, but it will result in much higher yields. 
Loams and sands may be planted to a cover crop in the fall 
without deep plowing, and these crops turned under in the 
spring in time for the soil to settle and become rather firm 
before the crop is planted. The best preparation for the 
planting is to plow the land broadcast, then ridges or beds 
are formed by throwing together at least four furrows. 
These beds are partially harrowed down and the cotton 
planted on top of the bed. 

145. Planting. — Cotton may be planted by hand, but 
the planter is more commonly used. The seeds are put 
in much thicker than required for a stand. Planting is 
best begun as soon as the danger of frost is over. This is 
from the 15th of March in southern latitudes to the 15th 



FARM CROPS 161 

of May in northern. About one bushel of seed is planted 
per acre. 

146. Cultivating and Harvesting. — Cotton should be cul- 
tivated as soon as practicable after the plants are up. This 
is best done with some form of fine-toothed cultivator, run- 
ning as close to the plants as possible without covering them. 
To prevent the soil from being thrown on the young plants, 
a fender should be used. The cotton is then ** chopped/* 
or thinned, to the proper distance in the row by means of a 
hoe. This distance will depend upon the fertility of the soil, 
varying from twelve inches on poor land to twenty-four 
inches on rich land. The subsequent cultivations should 
be such as to keep down weeds and conserve moisture. 
Usually cotton should be cultivated every ten days. Deep 
cultivation should be avoided, as cotton has many shallow 
roots, and cultivating deeper than three inches destroys 
many of them. 

Cotton is still harvested entirely by hand labor. Picking- 
machines that have been somewhat successful are now on 
the market, but these still are in the experimental stage. 



Corn 

147. Corn: Its Importance and Distribution. — Corn is a 
native of the New World. The early settlers found the 
Indians raising it when they landed in America, and learned 
from them its uses and how to cultivate it. Indeed, had it 
not been for this Indian corn many of the early settlers 
would have starved. The botanical name is Zea mays, and 
it is called maize, or Indian corn, to distinguish it from small 
grain, such as wheat and barley, all of which are called corD 



162 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

by the people of Europe. The corn that we read about in 
the Bible was not Indian corn, but small grain. 

The world's total production of corn varies from 3,000,- 
000,000 to more than 3,500,000,000 bushels annually. Of 
this amount the United States produces more than 2,000,- 
000,000 bushels, or over two-thirds of the total supply. 
Our corn crop of 1906 would fill a row of wagons stretching 
nine times around the world, each wagon holding 50 bushels 
and taking a space twenty feet long in the row. Corn is the 
most important crop grown in the United States. The acre- 
age devoted to this crop is three times that of cotton and 
twice that occupied by wheat. The leading corn-producing 
States in the United States are Iowa, Illinois, Nebraska, 
Missouri, Kansas, Texas, Indiana, and Ohio. During the 
^en-year period from 1901-10 the average annual acreage 
of corn in Texas was 6,138,843 acres, producing 118,567,175 
bushels, or 19^ bushels per acre. This is a low yield as com- 
pared with an average annual yield of 25 bushels for the entire 
'^Jnited States, 35 bushels for Illinois, and 32 bushels for 
Iowa during the same period. Our low yield shows the 
necessity of more attention to our methods of corn pro- 
duction. 

148. Description. — Corn is a member of the grass family. 
It differs from the other grasses in having the male and 
female flowers borne separately. The male flowers are 
borne in a spreading panicle (pan'i-kl) at the top of the plant, 
known as the tassel. These male flowers on maturing pro- 
duce an immense quantity of yellowish pollen grains. It is 
estimated that the tassel of each plant produces from 
18,000,000 to 25,000,000 pollen grains. The female flowers 
from which the ears of corn develop are borne in the axils of 



FARM CROPS 163 

the leaves. The young ear is surrounded by a covering of 
shucks, which are modified leaves, and serve to protect the 
ear. Growing out beyond the shucks are the fine, slender, 
thread-like silks, which are the elongated styles and stigmas 
on which the pollen is caught as it is carried about by the 
wind. The pollen grain, lodging on the silk, begins to grow, 
sending out a long tube which grows down the entire length 
of the silk, until at the base it reaches the ovule. It thus 
unites with and fertilizes the ovule, and the grain of corn 
develops. Unless the pollen grains come in contact with 
the silks, no corn grains will be produced. There are as 
many silks as spaces for grains of corn on the ear. Only 
one pollen grain is required for each silk. The pollen may 
come from a tassel on the same plant or one on some other 
plant. 

The corn-plant develops an extensive root system, a large 
part of which is shallow. There is no tap-root produced. 
The fine fibrous roots grow in a lateral direction and branch 
profusely. The greater portion of the feeding roots are 
found at a depth ranging from three to six inches below the 
surface of the soil, depending upon the character of the soil 
and the depth to which the seed-bed has been prepared. 
It has been noticed that a large number of the roots, 
after growing in a horizontal direction for one or two feet, 
turn down more or less abruptly, presumably in search of 
moisture. 

149. Races of Corn. — There are at least six known races 
of corn. These are: 1, dent corn; 2, flint corn; 3, sioeet corn; 
4, pop-corn; 5, soft corn; and 6, pod corn. 

The bulk of the American corn crop is dent corn. It is 
the common race of corn grown in the Southern States, and 



164 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



is characterized by the presence of a small indentation, or 
dent, in the top of each grain. Varieties differ, but the usual 
tendency is to produce from one to two ears per stalk. 

Flint corn is much harder than dent. The top of the 
grain is smooth or rounded, and the grains are shorter than 





1 * *^. 


1 1 


1 


i 


K 


^^B^^^jp^^^^^^^^^^^^j^HII 


H 1 


1 

1 


ii 


1 


^^H 


■^^^ .^m 


^^SHflH 



Fig. 99. Boone County white corn and the com from which it was 
developed by selection. 

Courtesy of U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



those of dent corn. Plants vary in height from five to twelve 
feet, and have a tendency to produce two ears per stalk. 
Flint corn matures quickly, and is therefore grown near the 
northern limit of production. 

Sweet corn presents a wrinkled, horny surface, and con- 
tains much more sugar than the other races. It matures 
early, the plants are small, and each plant bears a number of 



FARM CROPS 



165 



small ears. In the South it is 
grown mainly in gardens and is 
highly prized for table purposes. 

Pop-corn is characterized by 
its very small compact, horny 
grain. This compactness of the 
grain gives it its popping prop- 
erty. The plants are small, and 
several small ears are borne on 
each plant. 

Soft corn bears a grain that is 
very soft and white. This corn 
was cultivated extensively by 
the Indians, because it is easily 
ground or crushed. 

Pod corn is a curiosity and is 
not grown commercially. Each 
individual grain is inclosed in a 
small shuck, while the ear is 
covered by an outer shuck. 

150. Varieties. — Each of the 
above races of corn contains a 
large number of varieties that 
have been produced as the result 
of crossing, selection, or growth 
under different conditions of soil 
and climate. Some of the most 
commonly grown Southern dent 
varieties are Mosby, Hickory 
King, Marlboro, Cocke Prolific, 

Boone County White, Munson, Sure Cropper, Strawberry, 
Texas Gourd Seed, Bloody Butcher, and Mexican June. 




Fig. 100. These three stalks 
grew in the same hill. Differ- 
ences in the seeds make the 
differences in the stalks. 

Courtesy of Professor P. G. 
Holden. 



166 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



151. Improvement of Corn. — There are very few pure or 
uniform varieties of corn, due to the fact that it mixes so 
easily, because of the great distance to which the wind car- 
ries the pollen. Too little attention is given to improving 
our corn. Barren and poor stalks are allowed to ripen and 

pollenate good stalks, 
and selection of seed is 
usually made after the 
corn is in the crib. The 
result is that the vari- 
ety deteriorates from 
year to year. It is en- 
tirely possible to in- 
crease the yield of corn 
from ten to twenty per 
cent by seed selection 
alone, an increase which 
comes with very little 
labor. 

152. Seed Selection. 

Fig. 101. These three ears grew on three ' ^^^ Selecting SCCd-COm 

different stalks in the same hill. Differences xU p,-,+:pp r»lj,rit nQ wpII 

in the seeds mako the differences in the yield. ^'^^^ culiic pittiiL ds wcu 

Courtesy of Professor P. G. Holden. aS the ear should be 

considered. This makes 
it impossible to make a wise selection of seed-corn from the 
crib, and necessitates selecting the seed in the field before 
the crop is harvested. A good plan is to go through the field 
at harvest-time and select seed ears from the most productive 
plants, at the same time taking into consideration such 
points as the position of the ear on the stalk, the height of the 
ear from the ground, and the general healthful ness of the 
plant. IMuch improvement will be secured if nothing more is 




FARM CROPS 167 

done than to select from productive plants enough seed to 
plant the next year's crop. However, even among ears that 
look equally good and come from equally good stalks, some 
will grow better and produce a great deal more corn than 
others. If the farmer wishes to have the very best seed, he 




Fig. 102. The results of test of fifteen ears of corn. Ears 2, 6, and 9 are 
entirely dead; ears 3, 4, 7, and 8 are particularly vigorous. 
Courtesy of Professor P. G. Holden. 

must find out which of these good-looking ears are most 
/igorous and have the greatest producing power, and plant 
only from this stock. The vitality and growing power can 
to a great extent be determined by testing each ear in the 
germinator, taking six grains from different parts of the ear. 
Figure 102 shows the result of such a test. The difference in 
the producing power of different ears can be found out by 
what is called the ear-to-row test. 

153. Ear-to-Row Test.— At least 25 of the best ears 
selected from the field should be planted on a uniform plot 



168 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

of soil according to the following plan. Number the ears 
from 1 to 25 consecutively. Lay off 25 rows of equal length 
on soil of uniform productiveness. These rows should be 
at least long enough for 150 hills of corn. Plant row No. 1 
from ear No. 1, row No. 2 from ear No. 2, and so on until 
the 25 rows have been planted from the 25 ears. All rows 
should contain an equal number of hills with an equal num- 
ber of plants in the hill. The cultivation and general treat- 
ment should be the same for all rows. As soon as the 
tassels show and before any pollen has been shed, carefully 
pull the tassels out from one-half of every odd-numbered 
row, say the north half, and from the south half of every 
even-numbered row. This insures cross-fertilization, which 
has been shown to increase the production in corn. Seed 
should be saved only from the detasselled stalks, as the ears 
on these stalks were of necessity fertilized by the pollen 
from some other stalk or stalks. At harvest-time the ears 
from each row should be husked and weighed, keeping the 
ears from the detasselled stalks separate from those of stalks 
producing tassels. By weighing separately the corn from 
each row the best-yielding strain can easily be determined. 
Select the best ears from the detasselled portions of the eight 
or ten best rows for planting the general crop. If this does 
not furnish enough seed for the general crop, these selected 
ears may be planted on a half acre of good land and seed 
grown for the main crop. There should always be enough 
good ears selected from the best-yielding rows to plant a new 
ear-to-row plot the following year. All seed-corn should be 
hung in a well-ventilated place where it is not exposed to sud- 
den changes of temperature or to attacks of mice or weevils. 
154. Results of Ear-to-Row Test.— Ninety farmers in 
Iowa sent Professor Holden ears of their seed-corn to test 



FARM CROPS 



169 



by the ear-to-row method. He tested them and found that 
the yield per acre from different ears varied all the way from 
31.5 bushels to 80.5 bushels per acre. The six best produc- 
ing ears averaged 77.5 bushels, and the six lowest 35.(3 
bushels, showing that by planting seed of the best-yielding 




Fig. 103. Comparative yield of five highest and five lowest yielding ears 
at Story County, Iowa, station. The average of the five highest was 80.3 
bushels per acre; of the five lowest 40.8 bushels. The seeds were all secured 
from seed corn being used as seed by the farmers. How much is Texas losing 
each year by planting inferior untested seed? 

Courtesy of Professor P. G. Holden. 



ears only the farmers would have added to their yield on 
the average 41.9 bushels per acre, or more than double what 
they would have made by planting the six poorest-yielding 
ears. Professor Holden also tested 102 ears of the selected 
seed-corn at the station, and these fine-looking ears varied in 
yielding power all the way from 90.5 bushels from ear No. 
75 to 36 bushels from ear No. 93. Ear No. 19 gave 79 barren 
stalks, while ear No. 83 gave only 6; ear No. 54 had 258 



170 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

broken stalks, while ear No. 85 had only 41. Not all of 
these qualities can be found out by testing in the germinator 
before planting, but the vitality and growing strength can 
be found out in this way. By testing in the germinator and 
throwing out all weak growing ears, and then by ear-to-row 
test discovering the other good and bad qualities, the farmer 
can now breed and improve his corn easily and rapidly. 

155. Soil. — Corn will grow on a wide range of soil types. 
It makes its best yield on a deep, fertile, moist loam. A 
large per cent of the roots go down deep to supply the 
plant with water during dry periods. This necessitates 
deep preparation, especially if the soil contains considerable 
clay. Upland clay soils should be deepened gradually each 
year and at the same time vegetable matter added by the 
proper rotation of crops or by the addition of barn-yard 
manures. The seed-bed should be at least six inches deep, 
preferably eight. Bottom lands are better adapted to corn 
than upland soils, because they contain more moisture, but 
these must be well drained. 

156. Rotation. — Corn is adapted to the same kind of rota- 
tion that was given for cotton. When both corn and cotton 
are included in the rotation, the corn usually follows the 
cotton, as it is often difficult to get the cotton crop off in 
time to sow a small grain crop. 

157. Fertilizers. — Corn makes a very profitable use of 
rough manures containing organic matter, such as barn-yard 
manure or green manures. When the supply of organic 
matter is maintained by the above methods, nitrogen fertil- 
izers need not be used. The same is generally true of potash, 
as the decaying vegetable matter will make sufficient potash 
soluble in the soil to supply the needs of the crop. Phos- 




Fig. 104. The seeds from which these oat-plants grew looked very much 
alike, and were planted side by side. Which kind of seeds are you planting ? 
Courtesy of " Farm and Ranch." 



172 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

phorus is usually more deficient in the soils than potash, and 
where the above system of maintaining the organic content 
of the soil is practised, phosphatic fertilizers will generally 
be found profitable for corn. If the soil is deficient in 
organic matter, then both nitrogenous and phosphatic fer- 
tilizers should be used. A common application of fertil- 
izer for corn is four hundred pounds per acre, made up of 
two hundred pounds each of cotton-seed meal and acid 
phosphate. 

158. Planting. — Much of the corn in the South is still 
planted by hand. Where possible the corn-planter should 
be used, as it insures a more uniforni planting and germina- 
tion, and also saves much labor. One-horse planters with 
fertilizer distributors are quite generally used, and are very 
satisfactory. The use of the two-horse check-row planter 
is restricted to level lands only. It is not generally used 
in the South, but where the conditions permit its use it 
may be very profitably employed. 

159. Time of Planting.— Corn should be planted as soon 
as the soil becomes warm in the spring and the danger of 
frost is over. This varies from February 20 to April 15, 
depending upon the locality. If planted before the ground 
is warm, or while the soil is still too wet, corn is liable to rot 
before germination. Certain varieties of early corn, such 
as Mexican June, are often planted in June with good re- 
sults. 

160. Depth of Planting. — Corn is planted from one to four 
inches deep, depending on the soil and the season. It 
should be planted deep enough to insure the presence of 
enough moisture for good germination. On sandy lands 
deep-planting is generally the rule, while shallow-planting is 




Pig. 105. The root system of corn. 
Courtesy of Kansas Experiment Station. 



174 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

better on wet clay soils. Early planted corn should not be 
covered as deeply as late-planted. 

161. Cultivation. — Too often deep-tilling instruments are 
used in cultivation of corn. These large shovel plows pul- 
verize the soil very ineffectively, and also destroy many of 
the feeding roots. Small-toothed cultivators or some form 
of sweeps make the most satisfactory implements for cultivat- 
ing corn. These should not go deeper than from one and 
one-half to two and one-half inches, unless it be at the first 
cultivation on clay land that has a tendency to run together 
and bake. 

162. Harvesting. — The usual custom of pulling the corn- 
blades for feed is expensive, and also decreases the yield of 
the grain. Cutting the tops just above the ears at the time 
when the outer shucks have turned brown is also unprofit- 
able. This practice does not materially reduce the yield of 
grain, if done when the ears are fairly mature, but it is a 
very expensive way to get feed. The most profitable way to 
harvest the corn crop is to cut and shock the whole plant. 
This should be done when practically all of the shucks have 
turned brown and the grain has become hard. This prac- 
tice does not decrease the yield of grain. In this way all 
the forage is saved, and the use of the land is obtained for 
fall cover crops. In some localities the corn thus harvested 
is rur through the shredder, which shucks and separates the 
ears Trom the stalk, at the same time tearing the stalk to 
pieces. The shredded leaves and stalks are known as 
stover (sto'ver), and are readily eaten by stock. 

163. Corn- Judging. — How to judge corn will be treated 
when corn clubs are discussed in Appendix V. 



FARM CROPS 



175 



The Forage Sorghums 

164. Groups of Sorghums. — There are three distinct 
groups of cultivated sorghums : 1 , those varieties grown for 
syrup, owing to the high sugar content of their juices; 2, 
those grown for their tops, 

or flower stalks, which are 
used in making brooms; 
3, those grown for forage 
and grain, such as the 
Kafirs and durras. The 
last group is the most 
important, and our study 
will be restricted to these. 

165. Kafir and Durra. 
— There are three com- 
monly known varieties of 
Kafir, distinguished more 
especially by the color of 
their seed and hulls. 
These varieties are red, 
white, and black-hull. The 
red and black-hull varie- 
ties generally yield a lit- 
tle more grain than white 
Kafir, and are considered 
more desirable. They 

also grow taller than white Kafir, thus producing a little 
more forage. The chief varieties of durra are: yellow milo, 
brown durra, and white durra, or Jerusalem corn. Milo is 
grown more extensively than either of the other varieties. 




Fig. 106. Heads of milo maize and Kafir 
corn from near Dalworth, Texas. 

Courtesy of " Farm and Ranch." 



176 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

especially in western Oklahoma and the Panhandle oi 
Texas. It matures in a shorter time than Kafir, and is 




Fig. 107. Field of milo maize near San Benito, Texas. 

Courtesy of " Farm and Ranch." 



especially valuable for arid and semi-arid regions. The 
grain of this variety is large, brittle, and easily masticated 
by stock. Brown durra is grown extensively in certain sec- 
tions of the country, especially in California, where it is 



FARM CROPS 177 

often called '^Egyptian corn." As the grain shatters easily, 
it is not considered as valuable as yellow milo. White durra 
is not grown extensively in this country. Owing to its 
Hability to injury by insects and fungus diseases, and to 
the fact that the seed shatters easily, it is not a very satis- 
factory crop. 

Kafirs and durras are especially adapted to semi-arid 
regions, owing to their drought-resisting properties, and 
should usually be depended on for grain rather than corn. 
They vary from four to eight feet in height. 

166. Soil. — These crops are best adapted to a good clay 
or loam soil. They make a fair growth even on a poor soil, 
but of course do best on a soil of high fertility. 

167. Preparation of Soil and Seeding. — The seed-bed is 
prepared in very much the same wa}^ as for corn. Where 
the crop is grown for grain, plowing is often done in the 
late winter or very early spring, so that the land will hold 
more moisture and the seed-bed get firm before planting 
season. The land should be thoroughly pulverized and the 
seed planted in drills three and one-half to four feet apart, 
and three to five, and in very poor land eight, inches apart 
in the drills. It is planted best with a corn-planter with 
a drilling attachment. In regions of little rainfall, listing 
is a very common practice. This is done by throwing out 
furrows at planting time with a lister, the seed being drilled 
in the bottom of these furrow^s. This insures deeper rooting 
and better enables the plants to withstand drought. 

168. Cultivation. — The cultivation of these crops is the 
same as for corn. The sorghums are shallow rooted, a fact 
which necessitates shallow cultivation. Small-toothed cul- 
tivators are generally used. 



178 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

169. Harvesting. — If grown primarily for grain, the crops 
should not be harvested until the seeds are fairly mature. 
The entire stalks may then be cut with a corn-harvester 
and shocked like ordinary corn, or the heads may be first 
cut off with a knife or header and the stalks afterward har- 
vested for stover. The heads should not be stored in large 
piles until they are thoroughly dry, as they heat easily. 
The grain may be threshed by running the heads through an 
ordinary grain thresher, or, if the entire plant has been cut, the 
heads may be inserted into the thresher until the seeds are 
removed, the stalks being then withdrawn. While much 
higher yields can be produced, the usual yield varies from 
twenty to forty bushels per acre. 



Legumes, or Nitrogen-gathering Plants 

170. What Legumes Are. — By legume is meant that class 
of plants the members of which bear their seeds in pods, 
and increase the supply of nitrogen in the soil because of 
certain bacteria which live on their roots and have the power 
of taking in the insoluble nitrogen from the air and working it 
into the soluble nitrogen compounds called nitrates, on which 
plants can feed. The common representatives of this group 
are cow-peas, soy-beans, pea-nuts, the clovers, vetches, and 
alfalfa. These are especially valuable plants to agriculture, 
because they improve the soil as well as produce the best of 
foodstuffs and forage. 

171. Tubercles. — If one will carefully examine the roots 
of cow-peas, clover, or any of these legumes, he will find a 
large number of small galls, knots, or nodules growing on 
them. These galls are known as tubercles. They are pro- 



FARM CROPS 



179 



duced by bacteria that live on the roots of the plant. Each 
tubercle contains thousands of these bacteria, which are 
alive and must have food. Part of this food they get from 




Fig. 108. Red clover in both pots; no nitrogen in soil of either, but bac- 
teria in the pot on the right. Courtesy of the University of Illinois Agricultural 
Experiment Station. 

the plant on which they grow and part of it from the air 
which circulates through the soil. The food that these bac- 
teria get from the air is pure nitrogen, which makes up four- 
fifths of the air. This insoluble nitrogen unites with other 
elements in the bacteria and makes a soluble nitrogen com- 
pound. The bacteria finally die and the legume takes the 
nitrate left by the bacteria and uses it in its growth. Finally 
when the legume dies and decomposes, the nitrogen which 



180 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



was taken out of the air by the bacteria is left in the soil for 
the use of other plants. 

172. Inoculation for Legumes. — The bacteria that pro- 
duce tubercles on clover are different from those that grow 





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i 


/t 


^fVv 




-^ I 


ww 1\1 






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^^%Jf 




^ 


-^L 





A^.. 






r'^^i^ 




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^^i£ 


.■ M 


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f^p'^ ^ 





Fig. 109. Pea-nut plant from the Panhandle. 

Cut on the left, courtesy of the United States Department of Agriculture; on the 

right, courtesy of " Farm and Ranch." 

on alfalfa. In fact nearly all the different kinds of legumes 
have their own particular bacteria, and if the right kind of 
bacteria is not in the soil, it must be added before the legume 
can be grown successfully. This addition to the soil of 
material containing the proper bacteria is called inoculation 
(in-oc-u-la''shun). The best way to inoculate a field is to 
add to it soil that contains the proper bacteria. For example, 
if one wished to inoculate an acre of land for alfalfa, he would 
apply to it about two hundred and fifty pounds of soil from 
a field that was growing alfalfa successfully. This would 



182 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

be sprinkled on as would a fertilizer and harrowed into the 
land. Inoculation does not have to be repeated every year, 
as the bacteria live from year to year in the soil. All legumes 
do not need inoculation. For example, the bacteria that 
grow on the roots of cow-peas are present in nearly all soils 
and would not have to be added. 

We shall speak of only a few of the most common legumes. 

173. Pea-nuts. — The pea-nut plant is an annual, growing 
from one to two feet high, depending upon the variety grown 
and the soil. The fruit, or seed, which is not a nut at all, 
is borne in pods underneath the surface of the soil, on tips 
of stems. These stems start out from the axils of leaves 
above ground and, after blooming, push their way into the 
soil and there develop the seed. 

174. Varieties. — Two well-defined types of pea-nuts are 
recognized : those with large pods and those producing small 
pods. A common representative of the former group is the 
Virginia pea-nut, used for roasting. The Spanish pea-nut is 
the small-podded variety. These are used mostly for mak- 
ing confectionery and feeding hogs. 

175. Soil and Fertilizers. — The pea-nut does best on a 
loam soil containing plenty of lime and not too much 
humus. If barn-yard manure is used, it should be applied 
to the preceding crop, so as to give it ample time to decompose 
thoroughly before the nuts are planted. Nitrogenous fertil- 
izers are seldom applied, as the pea-nut can secure its own 
nitrogen from the air. Potassic and phosphatic fertilizers 
are largely used. 

176. Planting and Cultivation. — The land should be 
plowed and prepared as for corn, but with even greater 
care. The large-podded nea-nuts are usually planted about 




R h 



o '^ 
O 



184 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

the time corn is planted, while the Spanish pea-nuts may be 
planted considerably later, at any date from the time that 
cotton comes up until about July 1 . The small-podded pea- 
nuts, which usually produce an erect growth, are generally 
planted in rows about twenty-four to thirty inches apart, 
and from four to eight inches apart in the row. For the 
large-podded varieties the rows should be from thirty to 
thirty-six inches apart. A weeder should be run over the 
land after the pea-nuts are planted and before they have 
come up. After the plants are up, a fine-toothed cultivator 
should be used, and cultivation should be frequent, keeping 
the soil finely pulverized, so that the plants will have 
no difficulty in producing the pods. One or two hoeings 
are usually necessary, depending upon the abundance of 
weeds. 

177. Harvesting. — Pea-nuts intended for seed or market 
should be harvested before frost. A common method of 
harvesting is to run under the row on each side with a turn 
plow from which the mould-board has been removed. 
This plow should be run at sufficient depth not to tear the 
pods from the branches. The plants are then lifted by hand 
or with a fork and stacked, usually on the same day that they 
are dug. The plants should be stacked with the tops turned 
outward and the stacks made as slender as possible. They 
are capped with grass or straw. 

178. Cow-peas. — The cow-pea is the most important 
Southern legume. It is grown on the widest variety of soil 
of any Southern hay crop. It fits into almost any system 
of crop rotation that the farmer wishes to practise, and is 
valuable either as hay, pasture, or seed crop. A crop of 
cow-peas may be grown after small grain comes off in the 



FARM CHOPS 



185 



spring, before small grain is seeded in the fall, or between 
two crops of small grain. They are generally grown as a 
secondary crop, being sown at the last cultivation of corn, 
except in regions of very dry summers, where they must be 
sown earlier. They may be either pastured off, used for 




Fig. 112. Field of cow-peas. 
Courtesy of " Farm and Ranch." 



seed production or for hay. They are often planted in 
drills between the corn rows, or between the hills of corn in 
the same row. In either case they are allowed to mature 
and the seed is harvested. Twenty bushels per acre is a good 
average yield. Cow-peas should never be planted until the 
soil gets thoroughly warm. Deep preparation of the soil is 
not essential to the successful growth of cow-peas, though on 
heavy clay soil it is very profitably employed. When sown 



186 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



broadcast, from one to one and one-half bushels of seed per 
acre are required. When sown in drills, one peck of seed is 
usually enough. Acid phosphate makes up the bulk of the 
fertilizer used, although considerable amounts of kainit are 
under certain conditions desirable. No nitrogen fertilizer is 




Fig. 113. Soy-bean field. A good legume for hay and for building up the 
soil. From Halligan's Fundamentals of Agriculture. Courtesy of Messrs. D. C. 
Heath &, Co. 



necessary. Cow-peas should be harvested for hay when the 
most mature pods are beginning to turn yellow. One and 
one-half tons of hay per acre is a good average yield. The 
soy-bean is rapidly coming into favor in some parts of the 
South-west. It possesses advantages in some respects over 
the cow-pea for certain localities. These should be studied 
carefully in the bulletins and tested on every farm. 



I 



FARM CROPS 



187 



179. Alfalfa. — Alfalfa is grown primarily for hay, but is 
sometimes used for pasture, soiling, or silage. Owing to the 
large amount of palatable hay produced, together with the 
fact that this hay contains a high percentage of protein, 
there is no more valuable 
forage plant in sections 
where it can be readily 
grown. 

180. Description. — A sin- 
gle plant of alfalfa ordi- 
narily produces from five 
to twenty-five erect stems 
growing out from a single 
crown. These stems range 
in height from eighteen to 
thirty (sometimes sixty) 
inches, depending upon 
the soil upon which it is 
grown. Plants growing 
alone may produce from 
one hundred and fifty to 
two hundred stems. The 
arrangement of the leaves 
is somewhat different from 
that of true clover, the lateral leaflets being borne on the 
side of each leaf stalk instead of at the end, as in the clovers. 
The stems are rather slender, making a hay of excellent 
quality. The seeds are borne in a much-twisted seed-pod 
having when mature a corkscrew appearance. Alfalfa pro- 
duces a very deep-growing tap-root. These roots have been 
known to grow to a depth of forty-five feet. On ordinary 
soil the usual depth is probably from five to ten feet, depend- 




FiG. 114. An alfalfa-plant only a few- 
months old. The roots are three feet 
long. Under very favorable conditions 
alfalfa roots are known to have run over 
forty feet. 



188 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

ing upon the character of the subsoil and the distance of 
standing water from the surface of the soil. Under suitable 
conditions the root tubercles begin to form about two or 
three months after sowing. 

181. Alfalfa Regions in Texas. — Alfalfa may be success- 
fully grown on the black prairie and Fort Worth prairie soils 
of central and northern Texas when it escapes root rot, to 
w^hich it is very subject. The river bottom soils of east 
Texas when well drained are also adapted to alfalfa-grow- 
ing. In recent years alfalfa has been successfully grown on 
certain areas of the ** red-bed " soils in north-west Texas, 
although the deficient rainfall in this section makes it very 
necessary for the alfalfa farmer to put forth every effort for 
conserving soil moisture, such as early plowing to enable 
the soil to store up easily the rainfall, and the maintenance 
of a loose mulch until planting to prevent loss of water by 
evaporation. Considerable alfalfa is grown under irrigation 
in the arid sections of south-west Texas. 

182. Essentials to Success in Alfalfa-Growing. — The fol- 
lowing are essential to successful alfalfa-growing: 1. The 
soil must be well drained to a depth of three or four feet. 
Alfalfa is a deep-rooted plant, and the presence of surplus 
or standing water in the upper three or four feet of soil is 
detrimental to its growth. 2. The soil must be fertile. 
Alfalfa should not be sown on land that does not possess fer- 
tility enough to produce two-thirds of a bale of cotton or 
thirty-five or forty bushels of corn per acre. 3. The soil 
must contain a rather large amount of lime. Alfalfa gets its 
nitrogen from the air as a result of the growth of tubercle- 
forming bacteria on its roots. These bacteria w^ill not thrive 
in an acid soil. The soil must be alkaline, and if sufficient 



FARM CROPS 189 

lime IS not naturally present, from one thousand to one thou- 
sand five hundred pounds of slaked lime per acre should be 
applied and incorporated with the soil at least two weeks 
before the seeds are planted. 4. The bacteria that grow on 
the roots and form the nodules must be present. As a rule, 
when alfalfa is grown for the first time in a locality, the soil 
should be inoculated. This is best done by the method out- 
lined in paragraph 172. 5. The soil must have deep and 
thorough preparation. Weeds and grass will easily kill out 
alfalfa, hence the preparation of the seed-bed should be such 
as to get rid of weed seeds. 6. Good seed must be planted. 
Alfalfa seeds are often put on the market in a low state of 
vitality, and the farmer should always test the germinating 
power of the seeds before they are planted. 7. There must 
be sufficient moisture in the soil when the crop is planted to 
germinate the seeds. Failure very often results from sowing 
alfalfa during a dry season when there is little moisture in 
the soil. Fall sowing is generally better than spring sowing, 
as in this way the young plants get the start on the weeds in 
spring; but unless a suitable season can be obtained in the 
fall it is better to wait and seed in the spring. 

183. Amount of Seed to Sow. — Most farmers sow too little 
seed. Twenty or twenty-five pounds per acre should be 
sown. Alfalfa does not spread by root stocks or stool out, 
like wheat or oats, and unless sufficient seed is sown a good 
stand need not be expected. 

184. Time of Cutting. — Alfalfa should be cut when the 
second growth is just starting. By examining the base of 
the plants the farmer can easily tell when the second growth 
of young stems is being put out from the crown. This is 
the time for cutting. This is usually when the crop is about 



190 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

one-tenth in bloom. If cutting is delayed until the second 
growth is far enough advanced to be clipped by the mower, 
the yield of the succeeding cutting will be greatly lessened. 

185. Curing the Hay. — Alfalfa hay should not be left in 
the swath exposed to the sun for more than two or three 
hours. Many farmers put it in small cocks immediately 
upon cutting. The cocks should be small and carefully 
made so as to shed rain. The curing process will go on fa- 
vorably under these conditions, while at the same time the 
leaves do not become so dry as to shatter when the hay is 
handled. If mould should occur, the cocks may be opened 
up for a short time. In arid regions, immediately after cut- 
ting, the hay is raked into windrows eighteen to twenty-five 
inches deep and is cured in the windrow. The hay is hauled 
directly to the stack from the windrow, often by means of 
" buck rakes." Any method of curing, to be successful, 
must be such as to avoid the loss of the leaves, as these are 
the most nutritious portion of the plant. 

Good alfalfa gives from three to six cuttings a year, yield- 
ing from three and one-half to four and one-half tons of hay 
per acre. Where it is irrigated and the growing season is 
long, more cuttings and heavier yields are obtained. 

186. The Clovers. — To this group of plants belong red 
clover, white clover, crimson clover, alsike clover, and mam- 
moth clover. These are known as the true clovers. Japan 
clover (lespedeza, les-pe-de'za) and bur-clover, while com- 
monly classed as clovers, are not in any way related to the 
above plants, and are not true clovers. Bur-clover is closely 
related to alfalfa. The true clovers most commonly grown 
in the South are the crimson, red, and white. Crimson 
clover is an annual, and therefore has to be seeded every 



FARM CROPS 191 

year. It is seeded in the fall and will produce a crop of hay 
in time for corn to be planted on the land the next summer. 
About twenty pounds of seed per acre are sown. Red clover 
is a perennial. It is primarily a hay plant, but is sometimes 
used for pasture. It grows best on fertile land containing 
considerable lime. In the South it is best sown in the fall 
at the rate of ten or twelve pounds of seed per acre. White 
clover is primarily a pasture plant, and is seldom grown for 
hay, owing to its prostrate, or creeping, habit of growth. It 
is usually sown in mixtures of grass-seed for pasture at the 
rate of from two to six pounds of seed per acre. Bur-clover 
is an annual, but reseeds itself readily. It makes its growth 
in the late fall and early spring, and hence is a good supple- 
ment to pasture grass mixtures, giving good grazing at a 
season of the year when the grasses are dead. Japan clover 
is an annual, making its growth during the summer months. 
It is used primarily for pasture, but some hay is produced 
from it. Japan clover often covers waste land that has been 
abandoned because of its poverty, greatly aiding in restoring 
this land to productiveness. Its value is too little appre- 
ciated by Southern farmers. 

Sugar-Cane 

187. Sugar-Cane : Its Importance. — Sugar-cane is a coarse 
grass grown in tropical and semi-tropical countries for its 
stems, the juice of which is used for the making of sugar and 
syrup. It differs from ordinary sorghum (commonly called 
cane) in containing a higher percentage of sugar in its juices, 
and also in not producing seed in this country, and only spar- 
ingly in tropical countries. Sorghum produces an abundance 



192 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

of seed in a compact panicle at the top of the plant. The 
sugar-cane is used primarily for sugar-making, while sorghum 
is used for making molasses. The plants of sugar-cane vary 
in height from eight to fifteen feet. The stems are usually 
close-jointed and very leafy. Sugar-cane was probably the 
first plant used in the manufacture of sugar. It is still one 
of the most important crops for this purpose, notwithstand- 
ing the great increase in the culture of other sugar-yielding 
plants within recent years. 

188. Roots. — As a usual thing sugar-cane does not pro- 
duce a prominent tap-root. A number of the finer roots, 
however, go deep into the soil, thus enabling the plant to 
secure moisture. The roots of sugar-cane do not branch as 
profusely as do the roots of corn. From the lower nodes, or 
joints, of the plant roots also come out above the ground, 
go down into the soil, and serve to brace and nourish the 
plant. 

189. Varieties. — No satisfactory classification of the vari- 
eties of sugar-cane has as yet been made. The most gen- 
erally used classification is that which is based upon the color 
of the stalk. Three classes are recognized: 1, the green and 
yellow group, in which the stalks are uniformly green and 
yellow; 2, the red group, in which the stalks are of a reddish 
color; 3, the striped group. 

190. Sugar-Cane Regions. — The important sugar-cane 
regions in the United States are found in southern Louisiana 
and southern and eastern Texas. In Louisiana cane is 
grown from New Orleans to within about one hundred miles 
of the Texas line. In Texas it is grown in the lower Brazos 
and Colorado bottoms, in creek valleys in east Texas, and in 
the lower Rio Grande Valley. 



FARM CROPS 193 

191. Soil. — Sugar-cane requires a well-drained, deep, 
sweet soil. Owing to the large amount of water which is 
passed through the plants during their growth, the soil must 
have a high water-holding capacity. Almost any fertile 
soil in the sugar-cane belt supplying the above conditions 
can be profitably used for this crop. In plowing the land 
for cane, steam-plows are often used, breaking the soil in 
some sections as deep as eighteen to twenty inches. All 
soils cannot be plowed to this depth, as the subsoil is often 
of such a nature as to make it inadvisable to bring very 
much of it to the surface. However, deep plowing must 
be the rule for sugar-cane. 

192. Fertilizers. — The best fertilizer for sugar-cane is 
stable manure. This is seldom produced in sufficient quan- 
tity to supply the needs of the crop, and the use of artificial 
fertilizers is resorted to. The usual custom in disposing of 
the crop is to extract the juice, burn the remainder of the 
crop, and return the ashes to the soil. This aids in main- 
taining the supply of phosphorus and potassium, but it re- 
sults in the loss of organic matter and nitrogen. As a result 
the most commonly purchased ingredient for cane fertilizer is 
nitrogen. A soluble fertilizer, such as nitrate of soda, is 
usually applied to the surface of the soil after the crop has 
made a portion of its growth, and is worked into the soil by 
cultivation. The less soluble materials, such as dried blood, 
tankage, and fish refuse, should be added earlier and mixed 
rather deeply with the soil. On acid soils lime is very bene- 
ficial. 

193. Planting. — In this country sugar-cane does not pro- 
duce seed. In tropical countries some varieties produce a 
small amount of seed, while others do not produce any. 



194 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



The seed produced is inferior, and has a very weak germinat- 
ing power. Plants produced from seed grow very slowly, 
requiring several years to attain full size. For the above 
reason sugar-cane is propagated by planting the 
stripped stalks, or from cuttings made from 
stalks. The buds, or eyes, located at the joints 
of the cane grow and produce plants. A very 
common method is to plant the entire uncut 
stalk. The land is first thrown up into high 
beds, with drainage furrows between. These 
beds are from four and one-half to seven feet 
wide. A furrow is opened in the top of each 
bed with a double mould-board plow, and a 
double row of cane is planted in the bottom of 
the furrow. With this method about four tons 
of cane are required to plant an acre. Planting 
is best done in the fall, although some cane is 
planted in February and March. Another com- 
mon practice is to plant the cane in hills. In 
this case there are three common methods ap- 
plicable : 

1. Laying the ** seed-cuttings " horizontally 
in the row, with the eyes, or buds, facing lat- 
erally. 

2. Placing the cuttings on a slant of about 
forty degrees, with the upper end protruding from the soil. 

3. Placing the cuttings vertically in the soil, with the upper 
end of the cutting protruding. 

These cuttings are spoken of as ** seed-cane." This " seed- 
cane" is usually covered only an inch and a half to two inches 
deep, especially in irrigated regions. 



Fig. 115. 
Stem of sugar- 
cane, showing 
the "eyes" at 
the joints 
from which 
the plants 
grow. 



FARM CROPS 



195 



194. Culture. — During the first few months after plant- 
ing, the cane is actively cultivated, usually with a one-horse 
cultivator. The object of this cultivation is to keep down 




Fig. 116. Field of sugar-cane at La Feria, Texas. 

Courtesy of " Farm and Ranch." 



weeds and stimulate the growth of the cane. Shallow cul- 
tivating is much preferable to deep cultivation. 

195. Harvesting. — The cane must be harvested before 
frost. However, the longer the cane can be allowed to grow 
in the fall the higher the percentage of sugar. The crop is 
harvested by hand, no successful harvester having as yet 
been invented. Immediately after the cane is cut, it is 
taken to the mill and ground. If the gri;iding is delayed 
more than twenty-four hours after cutting, fermentation be- 
gins and the quality of the juice is injured. 



196 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

196. Yield. — Twenty to twenty-five tons of cane per acre 
is a fair yield. Often more than this is produced. A ton 
of cane yields from one hundred and fifty to one hundred and 
sixty pounds of sugar. This gives more than three thousand 
pounds of sugar per acre. As much as four thousand five 
hundred pounds of sugar per acre have been produced. 



Rice 

197. Rice and Its Distribution. — Rice is an annual be- 
longing to the grass family. It is grown for its grain, which 
is borne in a spreading panicle somewhat resembling that 
of oats. This grain is more widely used as a food material 
than any other cereal. It forms the principal article of diet 
for more than one-half of the world's inhabitants. Asia 
produces more rice than any other continent. Next to Asia 
comes Europe, followed by North America. The leading 
rice-producing States in the United States are Louisiana, 
Texas, Arkansas, South CaroHna, and Georgia, producing a 
total of from twenty to twenty-five million bushels of rough 
rice. Of this amount, Louisiana produces about twelve 
million bushels and Texas about ten million bushels. 

198. Types and Varieties. — There are two types of rice 
grown in this country. These are upland rice and lowland 
rice. The upland rice is grown on relatively dry soils with- 
out irrigation. The lowland rice is the more important type. 
There are few varieties of rice grown in the United States. 
In the Eastern States white rice and gold seed rice are grown 
in considerable ^quantities. In Louisiana and Texas the 
most important varieties are Honduras and Japan rice. 
The Honduras rice produces a rather large grain, and is not 



FARM CROPS 



197 



so easily blown down because of the stiff straw produced. 
The Japan rice produces a short thick grain, and the plants 
do not grow as tall as Honduras rice. It is said to yield 
more grain than 
Honduras. 

199. Rice Soils in 
Texas and Louisi- 
ana. — The rapid de- 
velopment of the rice 
industry in Texas 
and Louisiana has 
been due to the 
opening up of large 
areas of prairie land 
in south-east Texas 
and south-west Lou- 
isiana. These rich 
drift soils have 
shown a remarkable 
adaptation to rice. 
They have heavy 
clay subsoil, and for 
that reason are very 
retentive of moist- 
ure, and, being 
practically level, are 
especially adapted 
to irrigation. They are sufficiently far from the coast to 
be free from storms and the attacks of birds. 

200. Preparing the Ground. — Rice land is usually plowed 
in the spring. The better the soil is pulverized the greater 




Fig. 117. Types of rice. On the left Honduras 
rice, on the right Japanese rice. 
From Halligan's "Fundamentals of Agriculture." 



198 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

is the yield. Deep plowing is more satisfactory than shal- 
low plowing, although rice does best in a rather compact 
soil. This compact condition can easily be produced by 
the use of a heavy roller after the land has been plowed. 
The plow should be followed in a short time by the disk 
harrow and then by the smoothing harrow. 

201. Sowing. — Rice should usually be sown from March 
17 to April 20 for best results. Drilling rather than broad- 
cast sowing is preferred, as a more uniform stand can be 
attained. Broadcast sowing is still very common, but this 
practice should be discarded. One to two bushels per acre 
is sown. 

202. Germination. — Very often the seed germinates poorly 
because of too little moisture in the soil. Some farmers let 
on enough water to saturate the ground immediately after 
sowing, drawing off at once any surplus water. A few sprout 
the seeds before planting by placing bags of rice in water. 
However, if the soil is dry when these germinated seeds are 
sown, failure is sure to follow. 

203. Irrigation. — Rice is best produced on land which can 
be kept flooded from the time the plants are six to eight 
inches high until near the time of maturing. Therefore 
land must be chosen that has some convenient supply of 
water for irrigation, has a retentive subsoil, and is practically 
level. In Louisiana and Texas the water used for irrigation 
is pumped from bayous and rivers, or from underground wells. 
By means of pumps and a system of canals the water is 
brought to the highest part of the fields. Low levees, or em- 
bankments, are constructed throughout the fields, chiefly 
with the plow, so that the water can be maintained at a 
uniform depth through the different portions of the field. 



FARM CROPS 199 

This depth should be from three to six inches. The water 
is appHed when the plants are about eight inches high, and a 
constant circulation of the water is maintained by a continu- 
ous inflow at the highest portion of the field and an outflow at 
the lowest portion. The water should all be drawn off in 
time for the soil to get firm before harvest-time, as this allows 
the use of improved machinery in harvesting the crop. The 
irrigation takes the place of cultivation in keeping down the 
weeds. 

204. Harvesting. — Where the water can be drained off the 
land, rice is best harvested with the self-binder. It is flrst 
put up in shocks in the field and capped in such a way as to 
shelter the heads from sun and rain. It remains in the shock 
until the straw is cured and the grain is hard. Threshing is 
done in the same manner as with other grains. 

QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES 

92. Bring in a cotton-plant and point out the main stem, primary limbs, 

and fruiting limbs. 

93. Examine five cotton-bolls, each from a different stalk, and make a 

record of the number of locks in each boll, number of seeds in 
each lock, and any points in which the bolls differ. 

94. Find three different varieties of cotton in your neighborhood and 

describe each. 

95. Dig carefully around a cotton-stalk standing in the field and see 

what effect would be produced by cultivation two inches, three 
inches, four inches, and five inches deep. 

96. Select the best stalk of cotton in your father's field. Gather the 

cotton, pick the seeds by hand, and plant these away from all 
other cotton. Cut out all poor stalks before they bloom, save 
seeds of the one best stalk again, and pick by hand and plant as 
before. Use the seeds of the other stalks to plant a large seed 
patch, and continue this selection for five years in accordance 
with the system shown in the diagram on the next page. 



200 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



97. Select six of the best stalks in your father's field, and enough of 
the poorest stalks to furnish a quantity of cotton when gathered 
equal to that obtained from the six best stalks. When ready to 
plant, take an equal quantity of the ordinary gin-run seed 
planted on the farm and plant side by side, in separate rows, 
first, the mixed gin-run seeds; second, the seeds from the selected 
plants; third, the seeds from the very poor plants. Cultivate all 
alike, and keep a record of the amount produced by each variety 
of seeds. Then calculate how much cotton would have been pro- 
duced on the entire farm by planting altogether from each kind 
of seed. 



I'JYEAR 




2VYEAR 




3?P 


/EAR 




4IfYEAR 






5THYEAH 


1 

PLANT 




500 
PLANTS 




ACRE 




GENERAL 
CROP 






1 






^ 






























1 

PLANT 




500 
PLANTS 




1 

ACRE 






GENERAL 
CROP 


















\ 
















1 

PLANT 


. 


500 
PLANTS 






1 
ACRE 




' 












\ 












1 
PLANT 




^ 


500 
PLANTS 


















/ 


Fig. 118. Five-year breeding plan for cotton or other crop. 
After Webber, ''Yearbook U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1902.' 




1 

PLANT 



98. Draw and label the parts of an actual corn-plant. 

99. Bring in corn-shucks which show that shucks are modified leaves. 
100, Dig down in the row of a growing corn-field, and make note of 

how the feeding roots are distributed. 

Plant corn one, two, three, and four inches deep. After four 
weeks, dig up the plants and note the character of each, espe- 
cially the character of the roots, and tell which is the best depth 
to plant on that soil. 

Plant rows of corn from grains taken from tips and butts, and 

parallel to these plant rows from the middle parts of the same 

ears. Keep a record of results. 

103. Select the five best ears in your father's corn-field, and next year 

plant the seed in an ear- to-row test, far away from all other corn; 



101 



102. 



FARM CROPS 201 

cut out all poor stalks before they develop any pollen, and de- 
tassel alternate halves of each row. Save the cross-fertilized 
corn from the detasselled stalks separately for seed. 

104. When the corn in the experiment above is gathered, calculate how 

much corn your father would have raised if all his seed-corn had 
been as productive as the best ear of this lot. 

105. Select the best five ears from the detasselled stalks in experiment 

six, and the best five ears from the other stalks. Plant these 
side by side, cultivate exactly alike, and note how much each 
produces. 

106. Select fifty ears of your father's seed-corn and test for germinating 

power. 

107. In a section where there is a fair supply of winter rain, and some 

rain during spring and early summer, but long drought during 
June, July, and August, what qualities must a grain have in 
order to be successfully cultivated? 

108. Collect and describe as many varieties of Kafir and durra as you 

can find in your community. 

109. Make a selection of especially fine stalks of either Kafir or durra 

growing on your farm, and breed up a finer variety by the same 
methods given for corn and cotton. 

110. Find plants of Japan and bur clover. Draw and describe each 

and bring the plants to school. 

111. Examine the roots of each kind of legume in your neighborhood, 

find the tubercles, and make notes of the different characteristics 
of each, drawing them. 

112. Select seed from especially fine plants of peas or other legumes 

and breed an improved variety. 

113. Get your father to help you make the following experiment: Plant 

peas in the rows of half the corn in one field. Also sow rescue- 
grass and bur-clover seed, about fifteen pounds per acre, at the 
last cultivation of this same half. Gather the peas for seed and 
graze the clover and grass till the spring plowing, when all 
sod is turned under. Plant cotton, or corn and peas, again on 
both halves of this field. Keep account of cost of seed and labor, 
and of value of all crops raised on each half of the field, and of 
the value of the grazing. Find out whether the legumes and 
grass paid, and if so, how much. (A great deal of the value of 
the legumes and green manure is still in the soil after the first 
year, and will add to whatever crop is grown on the land for 
several years.) 



202 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

114. Sow one acre of peas broadcast. Sow another one in rows and 

cultivate. Keep account of cost of seed and labor, and find out 
which pays best. 

115. In a very dry climate, would it be better to plant peas broadcast 

or to plant them in rows and cultivate? Why do you think so? 

116. Plant test rows of six varieties of peas and two varieties of soy- 

beans on your corn land. Give all equally good land and the 
same cultivation, and see which is best suited to your needs. 
Try this in a dry season and in a wet season. 

117. Make a drawing of a complete rice-plant, if this crop grows in your 

neighborhood. 

118. An acre of land contains 43,560 square feet. A gallon of water 

contains 231 cubic inches. How many gallons of water does it 
take to flood an acre field one inch deep? How many to flood it 
one foot deep? How many six inches deep? 

119. Select the best five rice-plants in your field, plant fifty seeds from 

each of these, one foot apart, in rows one foot wide the next 
year. Plant these five rows on the edge of the rice-field from 
which the wind usually blows. Watch the plants, weigh the 
grain from each fine plant, and again select the best. Plant 
these seeds next year and keep this up till you have bred up a 
variety that will uniformly give large yield. 

REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING 

Books treating a large number of crops of the variety indicated by 
their titles. 

"Field Crops for the Cotton Belt," J. O. Morgan. 

"Southern Field Crops," J. F. Duggar. 
"Forage Plants and Their Culture," C. V. Piper. 
"Forage and Fibre Crops in America," T. F. Hunt. 
"The Small Grains," M. A. Carleton. 
"Clovers and How to Grow Them," Thomas Shaw. 

Alfalfa. 

"The Book of Alfalfa," F. D. Coburn. 

Farmers' Bulletins, nos. 339, 636, 757, 865, 944, 982, 1021, 1185, 
1229. 



FARM CROPS 203 

Beans. 

Farmers' Bulletin, no. 289. "Beans." 

Farmers' Bulletin, no. 962. ''Velvet Beans." 

Farmers' Bulletin, no. 973. "The Soy Bean." 
Farmers' Bulletin, no. 1275. "Bean and Pea Weevils." 
Texas A. and M. College Farm and Home Hints on Soy Beans and 
■ Velvet Beans. 

Clovers. 

Farmers' Bulletin, no. 455. "Red Clover." 

Farmers' Bulletin, nos. 579, 646, 1142, on crimson clover. 

Farmers' Bulletin, no. 693. "Bur Clover." 

Farmers' Bulletin, nos. 797, 820, 836, 1005, on sweet clover. 

Farmers' Bulletin, no. 1151. "Alsike Clover." 

Farmers' Bulletin, no. 1143. "Lespedeza as a Forage Crop." 

Corn. 

Farmers' Bulletins, nos. 537, 773, 992, 1149, 1175, on growing corn. 

Farmers' Bulletins, nos. 739, 872, 875, 891, 915, 950, 1025, 1029, 
1046, 1124, 1176, on insects and diseases of corn. 

Texas Experiment Station Bulletin, no. 276, "Corn Variety Ex- 
periments," and no. 270, "Black and Yellow Moulds of Ear 
Corn." 

Cotton. 

Burkett and Poe, "Cotton." 

Farmers' Bulletins, nos. 501, 1098, 1262, on the cotton boll weevil. 
Farmers' Bulletins, nos. 555, 831, 890, 1187, on insects and dis- 
eases attacking cotton. 

Cow-peas. 

Farmers' Bulletin, no. 1148. "Cow-peas: Culture and Varieties." 
Farmers' Bulletin, no. 1153. "Cow-peas: Utilization." 
A. and M. College of Texas Bulletin, "Peas and Peanuts." 

Oats. 

Farmers' Bulletin, no. 420. "Oats: Distribution and Uses." 
Farmers' Bulletin, no. 436. "Winter Oats for the South." 
Farmers' Bulletin, no. 892. "Spring Oat Production." 
Farmers' Bulletin, no. 1119. "Fall Sown Oats." 



204 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

Pea-nuts. 

Farmers' Bulletin, no. 1127. "Pea-nut Growing for Profit." 

Potatoes. 

Farmers' Bulletins, nos. 533, 868, 1064, 1190, 1205, 1225, on grow- 
ing Irish potatoes. 

Farmers' Bulletins, nos. 970, 999, 1020, 1059, on growing and stor- 
ing sweet potatoes. 

Rice. 

Farmers' Bulletin, no. 673. ** Irrigation Practice in Rice Grow- 
ing." 

Farmers' Bulletin, no. 1086. "Insects Affecting the Rice Crop." 

Rye. 

Farmers' Bulletins, nos. 756, 894, on culture of rye. 

Sorghums. 

Farmers' Bulletins, nos. 477, 724, 827, 965, 972, 973, 1137, 1147, 
1158, on production and uses of various sorghums. 

Texas Experiment Station Bulletins, nos. 195, 204, 236, 261, 269, 
275, 279, 285, 294, on several varieties of sorghums, their culti- 
vation and feeding values. 

Vetch. 

Farmers' Bulletin, no. 515. "Vetches." 

Wheat. 

Farmers' Bulletin, no. 885. "Wheat Growing in the Southeastern 

States." 
Farmers' Bulletins, nos. 1006, 1011, 1058, 1083, 1213, 1224, 1226, 
on insect pests and diseases of wheat. 



CHAPTER VIII 
THE GARDEN 

205. Home-Gardening Differs From Truck-Growing. — 

Raising a home vegetable garden is quite different from 
trucking, or raising vegetables in large quantities for the 
market. Trucking is practicable only where the soil and 
climate are favorable and the transportation and market- 
ing of the produce are easy. In trucking large fields and 
special equipment for tillage and marketing should be used. 
In the home garden the aim is to furnish the family a sup- 
ply of fresh wholesome food at all seasons and add an at- 
tractive feature to farm living. The surprises and delights 
in growing the variety of plants found in a garden are 
many. Only a few farmers can profitably be truck -growers, 
but every farmer should have a good home garden. The 
growing of truck is very important in Texas, but in an 
elementary work treatment of this must be omitted and 
the space given to the more generally needed home garden. 

206. Value of the Garden. — The farmer probably gets a 
larger return from the time, money, and land devoted to a 
vegetable garden than from any other expenditure on the 
farm, provided it is intelligently managed. At the University 
of Illinois a careful account was kept of a half-acre vege- 
table garden for five years. During that time the garden 
produced an average of one hundred and five dollars' worth 
of vegetables per year at a cost for seeds, labor, and in*^ 

205 



206 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

secticides of thirty dollars per year. A vegetable garden is 
valuable not merely because it produces foodstuff worth so 
much money, but also because it furnishes at all seasons of 
the year the fresh green foods that are necessary for the 
best health and working efficiency. Meat, bread, molasses, 
and dried vegetables all the time do not give an economical 
or wholesome ration. The human system needs for its best 
development the fresh foods with phosphates and acid juices 
in them, just as the plant needs phosphates. With a prop- 
erly planned garden and suitable berry bushes, grape-vines, 
nut and fruit trees, all of which take only an acre or so, the 
farmer has over half his food supply at practically no cost, 
and has it fresher and better than it could be bought at 
any price. 

207. Location and Soil. — For the average family a half 
acre will furnish an abundance of vegetables all the year. 
The garden should be near the house for convenience in car- 
ing for and gathering the vegetables. A well-drained spot 
somewhat protected from the high winds should be chosen. 
The soil should be a sandy loam or clayey loam. Coarse 
sand or heavy clay makes a poor garden soil. If such must 
be used, the character should be improved at once by the ad- 
dition of manure, green manure, well-rotted chips, leaf mould, 
ashes, lime, sand, or whatever is needed to make a loose, 
rich, finely pulverized soil. The soil must be given humus 
enough and be broken deep enough to hold moisture well. 
When practicable, the garden should be located where it 
can be irrigated from the tank. Often a very small amount 
of water will save a vegetable crop. The garden spot should 
be thoroughly broken and ten to twenty-five loads of stable 
manure turned under in the fall in time to allow for decom- 



THE GARDEN 

.001- 



207 




AVM3AiaO 






as, 






208 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



position. Before the seeds are sown the soil should be 
plowed and replowed, disked, harrowed, and dragged until 
it is thoroughly pulverized, settled down, and the surface 
levelled and covered with a fine mulch. 

208. Shape and Arrangement. — The garden should have 
a wide gate to admit wagon and team, should be oblong, so 

that the rows may be long, and 
should be so planted that the 
tillage can be done largely with 
teams. The rows should ex- 
tend the entire length of the 
plat, and should not be less 
than thirty inches apart for the 
use of the horse cultivator, and 
fifteen inches for the hand 
wheel cultivator. Small square 
patches worked by hand make 
gardening needlessly burden- 
some and expensive. The 
grape-vines and berries are 
usually planted on one side of the vegetable garden, the 
grapes in rows about twelve feet apart, and the berries in six 
or eight foot rows. Blackberries and dewberries should be in 
every garden in the Southwest, and in almost every section 
some of the numerous varieties of bunch grapes, especially 
hybrids created by crossing the Eastern grapes on our native 
wild ones. Valuable arbor grapes produced by the same 
crossing are now on the market. Where no other grape can 
be planted a few of the wild grapes for making jelly, jam, and 
grape juice should be placed where they may be easily gath- 
ered. Occasionally a few of the vegetables which cannot 




Fig. 120. A home-made garden 
reel. 

Courtesy of the U. S. Department of 
Agriculture. 



THE GARDEN 



209 



stand the hot sun may be grown under the arbors. Mint 
and parsley beds should be planted somewhere in the garden 
or yard near a water supply, as they need frequent watering. 
While these have no food value in themselves, it has been 
proved that attractive decoration and appetizing flavors 
given to foods 
tend to increase 
their digesti- 
bility. 

209. Garden 
to Furnish 
Fresh Food at 
all Seasons. — A 
w e 1 1-managed 
garden should 
furnish food at 
all seasons of 
the year. The 
same season 
varies in character from year to year and, of course, there 
are great differences in the climates of the Gulf Coast and 
the Panhandle, so that no statement would fit all sections; 
but a few general suggestions will help to guide the beginner. 
In the climate of Austin, as early as January, one may 
plant the hardy vegetables that a light frost will not kill, 
such as turnips, radishes, lettuce, spinach, mustard, cabbage, 
onions, carrots, beets, and garden peas. Occasionally a 
very cold spell will kill some of these, and they will have 
to be replanted. In case they escape there will be radishes 
and greens in February, and a plentiful supply of vegeta- 
bles in March and April. All of these may be planted 




Fig. 121. A home-made sled marker. 
Courtesy of the University of Illinois. 



210 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

again in February when Irish potatoes are planted. Tomato, 
sweet-pepper, and egg-plant seeds should now be planted in 
boxes in the house or in a hot-bed. In March the same veg- 
etables that are planted in February may be planted again, 
except the turnips, carrots, spinach, and lettuce, which are 
not usually profitable after the warm weather sets in. The 
early varieties of cabbage may be set out now, or even earlier, 
but these usually do better when grown in fall and winter. 
Okra, beans, and field peas also may well be planted in 
March. In April okra, beans, field peas, butter-beans, 
squash, pumpkins, corn, watermelons, cantaloupes, and 
cucumbers should be planted. The tomato, pepper, egg- 
plant, and sweet-potato slips should now be set out. In 
May okra and late corn may again be planted, and more 
tomato-plants be set out. An early and late variety of each 
of the above vegetables should be planted, and string beans 
and corn should be planted about every three weeks to give 
a succession of crops. The above should give an abundance 
of vegetables from March to August. Tomatoes, okra, po- 
tatoes, and pumpkins should run on till frost. If tomatoes 
are picked late in the season when full-sized, but still green, 
they may be wrapped in paper and stored in a dark cellar, 
kept until frost, brought out, and ripened when wanted. 
Tomatoes, butter-beans, peas, beans, okra, pumpkins, and 
corn should be canned and kept for use at all seasons. Butter- 
beans, peas, beans, and okra should be dried. Tomatoes, 
pumpkins, and Irish and sweet potatoes should be stored. 
The fall garden may be begun in August if there is a fa- 
vorable season. Now the winter-growing vegetables, such as 
cabbage, lettuce, spinach, beets, turnips, salsify, and winter 
radishes, should be planted. The roots of asparagus and the 



THE GARDEN 



211 



berries may now be set out. If the season is unfavorable in 
August the same vegetables should be planted in September, 
with Bermuda onions and shallots. In many sections all 
these vegetables make good crops when planted in October. 
They will furnish fresh green food all winter and into the 
early spring. 

Some crops should be growing on all parts of the garden 
at all seasons of the year. As the growing season of many 




Fig. 122. A horse cultivator for garden use. 



vegetables is only a few months, it is possible to secure two 
or three crops each year from the same land, if ample manure 
and fertilizer are added. 

210. Cultivation. — Wherever water can be secured for irri- 
gation the crops are of course made more certain and the 
vegetables more tender. It is useless to plant most vegetables 
unless the soil is very fertile and well supplied with moisture. 
Good tillage and repeated additions of humus and fertilizing 
material make a good garden possible even in dry sections 



212 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



and without irrigation. At times it is necessary in addition 
to the dust mulch to cover the soil with a mulch of leaves, 
chopped straw, hay, or other material that will hold in the 
moisture. 

The methods of planting and cultivating each vegetable 
are easily learned from the directions on the seed packages 




Fig. 123. An inexpensive wheel hoe for cultivation of the garden. 



and from the references given at the end of this chapter. 
The general principles of plant growth, tillage, and fertiliza- 
tion which you have learned will enable you to apply or 
to modify intelligently these directions to meet your needs. 
In planting, the seeds should usually be covered to a depth 
about equal to three or four times their own thickness. The 
soil should be pressed down closely upon them either by roll- 
ing or tramping, and then loose soil raked over the packed 
soil to hold the moisture. The soil must be kept constantly 
stirred and no weeds allowed to grow and scatter their seeds. 



THE GARDEN 



213 




All fence rows and corners should be kept clean even in winter 
months, to prevent as far as possible the harboring of insects. 
By planting in long rows after some such plan as is shown in 
Figure 119, it is possible to do nearly all garden cultivation 
with the horse cultivators. Where rows are too narrow for 
this, the type of wheel hoe shown in Figure 123 does excellent 
work with far less 
labor than when 
hand hoes and forks 
are used. 

211. Hot-Beds 
and Cold-Frames. 
— In order to have 
very early vegeta- 
bles it is often best 
to plant during cold 
weather in the house 
in boxes, or in a specially prepared bed and frame out of 
doors. Figure 124 illustrates a convenient form of out-door 
arrangement, called a hot-bed. A hole is dug about a foot 
deep and as large as the hot-bed is to be or larger. This 
is filled with damp horse manure that is beginning to 
heat. On this the wooden frame is set. About six inches of 
good garden soil is placed inside the frame and soil is piled 
up outside all around the base. The decomposition going 
on in the manure serves to keep the soil warm. Such frames 
may be of any size. They should be from eighteen to 
twenty-four inches deep on one side, sloping down to twelve 
or eighteen inches on the opposite side. As they must be 
covered with sash, it is well to have a shape that some cheap 
stock size of sash will fit. Three by six and four by eight feet 



Fig. 124. A hot-bed. 



214 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 




Fig. 125. Tomato-plants ready for setting 
in the field. Note the large amount of soil 
carried with the roots. 



are convenient sizes. 
They should be nar- 
row enough to enable 
one to reach across 
easily. Where manure 
is not used and no 
bottom heat is pro- 
vided, such a frame 
is called a cold-frame. 
At times these are 
covered with cloth 
instead of glass. The 
hot-bed and cold-frame 
offer protection not 
only against cold but 
to some extent against 
insect pests. Plants that are started in such frames are 
tender and must be gradually hardened by first raising and 
later taking off the covering on mild days, thus by degrees 
exposing the plants to the weather. Any one can make a 
hot-bed, and the ex- 
pense is so small that 
every family can have 
one. 

212. Transplanting. 
— ^You have learned 
that in transplanting 
the delicate root hairs 
are usually torn from 
the roots as they are 
taken from the soil. 




---•vi^B'^^-'- 



Fig. 126. Handy box for use in seeding or 
when plants are transplanted while in hot-bed 
in order to in'^rease their size. 



THE GARDEN 



215 




Fig. 127. The right and the wrong way to set 
out plants with a dibber. 



and because of this the plant is unable to make any head- 
way after being transplanted until new root hairs are de- 
veloped. In many cases the plant never recovers. This 
injury may be largely avoided by planting the seeds in 
small pots or cans and transplanting the plant and soil 
together. A similar result can be secured by planting in a 
shallow box like that 
shown in Figure 126. 
By fastening one 
side of this box with 
screws or nailing it 
lightly so that it may 
be easily removed, it 
is possible to cut 
around the plant 
with a trowel and remove it and the soil together, so that 
the roots and root hairs are undisturbed. Frequently the 
plants are transplanted once in the hot-bed while very 
small, being reset about four inches apart. When this is 
done they grow more vigorously, and a larger mass of soil 
and root can be taken up with each plant when it is 
carried to the garden. Transplanting is best done on damp 
days or late in the afternoon. If the soil is not thoroughly 
moist, water should be poured into the hole and the loose 
soil drawn in and lightly pressed upon the roots. After this, 
more loose soil should be drawn around the plant over the 
wet spot to hold in the moisture. It is important when trans- 
planting to trim carefully all bruised roots and to take off 
an amount of the top to correspond to the amount of the 
root lost. Unless the soil and plant are moved together, 
with the roots left undisturbed, the roots should be care- 



216 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

fully spread out before being covered with soil. Figures 127 
and 128 show clearly the right and wrong ways to trans- 
plant. 

213. Watering Plants. — Plants should not be watered 
while the sun is shining on them. The water should be put 
on late in the afternoon or early enough in the morning to 




Fig. 128. Transplanting. The roots of the plant on the left will never grow 
■well. The plant in the centre is set too high. Tiie one on the right is cor- 
rectly planted. 



soak in well before the sun gets hot. Frequent shallow water- 
ings are not as good as occasional thorough soakings of the 
soil, because in surface wetting most of the water is lost by 
evaporation, and the growth of a very shallow root system 
is encouraged. After the water has gone down and the 
surface begun to dry, the crust should be broken or cov- 
ered with a mulch before the water has time to come to 
the surface and be evaporated. When water is poured 
around individual plants or run down a trench, the wet 
places should be covered with dry soil as soon as the water 
has soaked in. 



THE GARDEN 



217 



214. Saving Seeds. — Seeds imported from the North have 
the advantage of maturing somewhat earher than home- 
grown seeds, and those bought from a rehable seed house 
are less apt to be 
mixed than are 
those grown at 
home. On a great 
seed-breeding farm 
each crop is planted 
widely removed 
from all that might 
cause a mixture. 
Although home- 
grown seeds may 
not be quite so 
early in maturing, 
and may be some- 
what mixed by 
being grown close 
to other varieties, 
they have some ad- 
vantages. You can 
be sure that your 
seeds come from 
plants that are adapted to your climate and soil and from 
fine individual specimens. With bought seeds you usually 
have no assurance on these points. 

In saving seeds select only the best specimens from the 
type of plant that you wish; allow the fruit to ripen fully 
and then dry the seeds thoroughly in the sun before putting 
them away. They should be placed where they will be dry, 




Fig. 129. Onions trimmed ready for transplanting. 



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220 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 




Fig. 130. Paper and tin shields for young plants in a 
small garden. 



well ventilated, not subject to great changes in temperature, 
and not liable to suffer from mice, rats, or insects. 

215. Garden Pests. — Insects and diseases are discussed in 
another chapter, but a few additional practical suggestions here 
for young gardeners will be helpful. Where there are only a 
few or especially valuable plants to protect, the cutworm, 

which destroys 
so many fine 
young vegeta- 
bles, may be 
kept out by 
wrapping the 
stems of plants 
with a thin soft 
paper when 
they are trans- 
planted. The paper should be loosely rolled around the 
stem and the plant so set in the soil that the paper extends 
below the surface far enough to hold it in place. The paper 
soon disintegrates or may be removed after the plant is 
large enough to protect itself. Another successful plan is 
to surround the young plant with a tin ring which extends 
about an inch above and an inch below the surface of the 
soil, and stands about an inch from the plant all around. 
By melting the tops and bottoms from old tin cans and cut- 
ting the cans in circular strips about two inches wide, these 
rings can be made at no expense except the labor. They 
will last for years. In order to make it easy to remove the 
rings from the plants they should be slit, so that they are 
merely bent around the plant and held in place by the soil. 
Figure 130 shows such protectors in place. 



THE GARDEN 221 

In addition to protecting the plants from cutworms, all 
means for destroying these worms should be employed 
without ceasing. They should be destroyed by hand 
and by poison, and no remnants of crops should be left 
ungathered for them to feed on, so that they thrive and mul- 
tiply. A few worms left will develop into moths that will lay 
eggs enough to fill the garden with worms again. The moths 
should also be attacked by such means as are suggested in 
the references. All weeds and grass should be kept out of 
the garden, and the fields immediately adjoining it should 
be cultivated and kept clean. Spasmodic fighting of such 
pests accomplishes little, bat persistent intelligent work 
brings them under control. 

The insects which destroy so many young melon, cucum- 
ber, and other similar plants can often be guarded against 
economically by the use of wire-netting cages, which can be 
made for about two cents apiece and which last for years. 
Such a cage is easily made by cutting strips from thirty-six- 
inch wire netting. Ravel out one or two wires on one side 
and on one end of a piece of netting six by eighteen inches 
in size. Bend this strip and make a hoop about six inches 
in diameter by running the loose ends of the wire at one 
end of the strip through the meshes at the other end, and 
bending them back so as to hold the two ends together. 
Then cut a piece seven inches square and press it down on 
top of the ravelled end of the hoop, and work the loose ends 
of the wires of the hoop through the meshes of the top piece, 
and bend these down so as to hold the top on. Such a cage 
keeps out insects and shades the young plants slightly. 
When the plants are tough enough to withstand attacks, 
the cages are lifted off and put away for future use. 



222 FUNDAMENTALS OF FAHMING 

Toads, horned lizards, and birds should be encouraged in 
the garden, as they are great natural insect destroyers. 
Toads should be kept in the hot-beds, cold-frames, and seed- 
beds. Young fowls, before they are old enough to do harm 
by scratching or pecking the vegetables, will destroy great 
numbers of insects. 

The Questions, Problems, and Exercises and the 
References for Further Reading on the garden will be 
given at the end of the next chapter. 



CHAPTER IX 
SCHOOL GARDEN AND FARM 

216. Every School Should Have a School Garden. — Each 
pupil should have a home garden and put into practice there 
the things that he learns in school. The work is more in- 
teresting and instructive if there is also a school garden. 
With even as little as a quarter of an acre forty-two pupils 
may each have an individual plat five by fifteen feet, and still 
half the land be left for trees, shrubs, flowers, experimental 
tests, and general observation plats. It is better, however, 
if the garden for this number covers a half acre, as shown in 
Figure 124. To this garden with its small experiment plats 
should be added several acres of farm for larger experiments 
and for observation. In some places such school farms are 
made a valuable source of income for the school each year. 
It is certainly possible in every rural community to secure 
by donation one or more acres for the school garden and 
farm. Every rural school should have from five to ten acres 
of land attached to it. Patrons and friends gladly contribute 
the needed manure, fertilizers, and work of teams when these 
cannot be secured out of the school funds. The work in the 
garden is a pleasant diversion for both teacher and pupils 
and in nowise interferes with the other work of the school. 

217. How the School Garden is Laid Out.— The school 
garden should have around it attractive borders of flowers 
set against a background of shrubs. There should also be 

223 



224 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



FOREST AMD NUT TREE NURSERt 
16X70' 



OBSERVATION PLOTS 
16X70' 



FLOWERS AND SHRUBS 
8- X 70' 



FRUIT TREE NURSERY AND SMALL FRUIT GARDEN 
I6'X70' 



;6''<:6' 



CLASS EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS 
16-X 7a 



FLOWERS AND SHRUBS 
a X 70- 











m 








HOT BED 1 
6X12' 1 ccuAAi i^irruCKi r.nor\cu 




16X70- 




I6X70- 


.S'^.M 


4' 








6X16| 


' 




























3- ' ■ 1 


)IVIDU 


V. 










1 


IVIOU 






































PLOTS 






PLOTS 





































Pig. 131. A good layout for a half-acre school garden where there are only 
a few pupils. 



- 16* 



^ 



RADISHES FOLLOWED BY TOMATOES 



POTATOES 



CARROTS 



CABBAGES 



BEETS 



SPINACH FOLLOWED BY TOMATOES 



LETTUCE FOLLOWED BY BEANS 



Fig. 132. A good planting plan for the pupil's individual plat. 



SCHOOL GARDEN AND FARM 



225 



one plat set aside for the cultivation of flowers. One should 
be devoted to a nursery for forest and nut trees. In this 
the seedlings are raised, with which part of the practice in 
grafting, budding, pruning, and transplanting is obtained. 
Another plat devoted to fruit trees serves in part the same 




Fig. 133. A view in the practice school garden at the University of Texas. 
Courtesy of A. S. Blankenship, University Lecturer on Rural Schools. 

purpose, and gives opportunity for the study of insects and 
diseases, and for learning how to care for fruit trees. Another 
plat is devoted to demonstrations for observation by the 
entire class of such things as the effect of different varieties of 
seeds, different methods of tillage, etc. In another plat ex- 
periments may be carried on by either teacher or pupils or 
both. In still another a kitchen garden for use of the school 
may be cultivated. Besides these large plats there should 
be a small individual plat, about eight by sixteen feet, for 
each pupil. This plat should be cared for entirely by the 
pupil, under the direction of the teacher. An accurate and 



226 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



neat account of 
all work done, and 
of the results, 
should be kept by 
the pupil and 
handed in to the 
teacher for criti- 
cism and sugges- 
tion. The short 
plats necessitate 
the doing of all 
work by hand, but 
as the object is to 
help the pupils 
learn how to 
handle plants, this 
uneconomical plan 
is justified. 

218. What to 
Plant in the In- 
dividual Plat. — 
No fist of vege- 
tables for the in- 
dividual plat is 
equally good for 
all sections. The season of the year, the soil, and the local cli- 
matic conditions must determine what is best. The list shown 
in Figure 132 suits well for the spring in Austin. A garden 
started in the fall, as gardens should be, would have such 
vegetables as radishes, lettuce, spinach, turnips, onions, and 
cabbages. The list should include some vegetables that are 




Fig. 134. A good set of tools. 
Courtesy of Edward Mahoney. 




Fig. 135. A good showing; a happy boy. Courtesy of Edward Mahoney. 




Fig, 136. School-boys com, school farm, Uvalde, Texas. 
Courtesy of A. S. Blankenship, University Lecturer on Rural Schools. 



228 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



grown for their underground parts, some for their leaves and 
stem, some for their fruit and seeds, some that require trans- 
planting, some that come quickly to maturity, and some that 
are slow. It should include vegetables that the pupils and 
the pupils' parents especially like. 




algil'Iaaaii^ 



Fig. 137. A view of the school farm, Bonham, Texas. 
Courtesy of A. S. Blankenship, University Lecturer on Rural Schools. 



219. Tools and Seeds. — The expense of tools is small, 
and even where it is impossible for the school to furnish 
each child an individual set of tools such as is shown in 
Figure 134, the school can purchase a few tools for general 
use, and have each child bring his tools from home when 
needed. Seeds are also inexpensive. By writing to the 
Congressman from the district it is possible to secure from 
the United States Department of Agriculture a considerable 
supply of excellent seeds free of charge. After the first year 
a large part of the seeds should be saved from the garden. 



SCHOOL GARDEN AND FARM 229 

220. The School Farm. — In addition to the garden with 
its small plats there should be a farm of several acres to 
afford opportunity for larger demonstrations of different 
crops, of rotation, different methods of tillage, orcharding, 
combatting insects and other pests, fertilizer and manure 
tests, breeding, selection, etc. The school farm should be 
the community experimental plat for trying out and intro- 
ducing new crops, better suited varieties, and more econom- 
ical and efficient methods of cultivation. 

221. Keeping Records. — Neat and accurate records of all 
work should be kept by both pupils and teacher. On page 
230 there are samples of desirable types of records. 

There are several plans by which teachers grade the work 
done by pupils on the individual plats. The system of scoring 
indicated by the report blank on page 231, used by Mr. C. 
H. Winkler in grading the individual work in the University 
of Texas school garden, is a very satisfactory one. 

222. A Good School Garden and Farm. — The following 
account from the Boston Journal of Education of a school 
garden in Utah gives an idea of what any school with pro- 
gressive principal and teachers may accomplish. For South- 
western conditions, of course, other plants should be substi- 
tuted for some of those in this garden. 

" There are ten acres in the garden, of which two acres 
are reserved for dry farming, and on the other eight acres 
are: 

" Two hundred and eighty fruit trees, embracing every 
fruit that is raised for commercial purposes in the State. 

" Twenty kinds of garden vegetables. 

" Five cereals. 

" Two fibre plants. 



230 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



RECORD OF GARDEN WORK 



DATE 


WORK 


OBSERVATIONS 


Sept. 10.... 


Spaded and raked garden 


Found many earthworms. 
Soil moist, pulverized 
easily 


Sept. 11 ... . 


Planted one row each 

radish and spinach 

Planted in seed-bed 

lettuce seeds 


Covered seeds very lightly, 
tramped them, raked over 
them a thin cover of loose 
soil 


Sept. 12.... 


Planted onion sets 





PLANT RECORD 



Name of Plant Lettuce 


Variety 


California 


Time of Planting 


Oct. 10, 1 hour 


No. of Rows 2 


No. of Plants or 
Seeds 


42 plants 


Worked 


Oct. 11, watered 20 min. 


Worked 


Oct. 13, watered 20 min; 


Worked 


Oct. 20, cultivated 20 min. 


Worked 


Oct. 28, cultivated 10 min. Nov. 
15, tied up heads, cultivated 1 hr. 


Harvested 


40 heads, Dec. 1 to Jan. 1 


1 


Insects 


Worms destroyed two plants 


Fungi 




Remarks 


Lettuce worth $3 



SCHOOL GARDEN AND FARM 



231 



REPORT ON 


INDIVIDUAL PLATS 








Plat No 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 




1. General Appearance (20) 






















a. Rows straight 5 






















6. Rows in line 5 






















c. Stand 10 






















2. Layout (20) 






















a. Space between rows 10 






















6. Arrangement 10 






















3. Tillage and Irrigation (50) 






















a. Weeds 20 






















h. Mulch 20 






















c. Irrigation 10 






















4. Harvesting (10) 






















o. At proper stage 6 






















h. Care in removal 4 






















Total 100 























Instructor. 



232 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

" One hundred and thirty fruit trees in nursery. 

" Two rows asparagus, 165 feet long. 

" Four rows red raspberries, 165 feet long. 

" Two rows black raspberries, 165 feet long. 

" Two rows blackberries, 165 feet long. 

" Two rows rhubarb, 165 feet long. 

" One row grapes, 165 feet long. 

" Two rows gooseberries, 165 feet long. 

" Two rows currants, 165 feet long. 

" Several grasses. 

" Three hundred and ten children's home gardens. 

" There are one hundred and twenty children raising poul- 
try at home. 

'' The best part of the garden is that it is managed on a 
business basis. Every cent paid out is charged to the crop 
upon which it is expended. Every crop bears its part of the 
general expense. A close and accurate account is kept of 
every cent of income, for everything raised is sold for market 
price. Everything is of the best variety, is prepared for 
market in the most approved manner, and is marketed in a 
business-like way. 

" The seventh grade keeps the account, has a bank account, 
keeps track of all expenses. An account is kept with each 
crop, and with each plot of ground. The ordinary farmer's 
affairs are sloppy when compared with the financial affairs 
of this garden, kept by the seventh grade. 

" The eighth grade has charge of civic affairs, of the larger 
business interests. For instance, when pupils began to 
market they had to buy a horse and market wagon, and get 
a city marketing license. All this fell to the lot of the 
eighth grade.'' 



SCHOOL GAKDEN AND FARM 233 

223. The Inexperienced Teacher May Learn With the 
Pupils. — If the inexperienced teacher will frankly confess 
her inexperience to her pupils, and will carefully study such 
guides as Parsons's or Green's books, and the Government 
bulletins, she will be able to succeed with a garden from the 
very start. These books and bulletins give full details, with 
numerous illustrations. By conference with successful local 
gardeners such adaptations to local conditions as are neces- 
sary can be learned. Mistakes will be made by both teacher 
and pupils, but if thoughtfully used the mistakes may teach 
valuable lessons. The University of Texas Department of 
Extension sends out free a little monthly. Bulletin on 
Elementary Agriculture, which tells each month what to do 
in the school garden, and gives other timely suggestions for 
the teaching of an elementary course in agriculture in Texas. 



QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES 

120. How many days in the year do you eat green vegetables? 

121. Are all of your dried and canned vegetables grown at home? 

122. How large is your home garden? 

123. What varieties of vegetables are grown in it? 

124. Write out a practical plan for improving your home garden. 

125. State where you would locate a garden on your place, and give 

your reasons for choosing this spot. 

126. Tell the character of soil and subsoil on the spot chosen in the 

problem above, and state fully what you would do to bring this 
particular soil into the right condition. 

127. Lay out a garden plan for a quarter-acre garden, similar to that 

in Figure 112, including especially the vegetables liked by your 
family. Be careful to have a succession of vegetables covering 
the year, and the land occupied all the year with some crop. 

128. Get your father to allow you to carry this plan out next year. 

Keep an account of all expenditures and labor, and of the value 
of the vegetables used and sold. Report this to the school. 



234 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

129. Watch for plants that are especially able to resist certain insects, 

diseases, or drought, as is shown by their surviving when the rest 
of the crop is destroyed. Save seeds of these, and breed up a 
resistant variety. 

130. Select one vegetable crop, save seeds from the best specimen, and 

see how much you can improve this crop by selection during 
three years. 

131. Outline a list of vegetable and farm crops for your school garden 

that will accomplish the following things: 

(1) Illustrate various methods of cultivation. 

(2) Illustrate various methods of harvesting. 

(3) Illustrate the principal local crops. 

(4) Illustrate desirable rotations. 

(5) Test out a few crops to see if they can be profitably intro- 

duced into the locality. 



REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING 

* "Productive Vegetable Growing," J. W. Lloyd. 

* "Garden Farming," L. C. Corbett. 
"Subtropical Vegetable Gardening," P. H. Rolfs. 
"Principles of Vegetable Gardening," L. H. Bailey. 

"Garden Making. Suggestions for the Utilization of Home Grounds," 
L. H. Bailey. 

"Vegetable Gardening," R. L. Watts. 

"Children's Gardens for Pleasure, Health, and Education," H. G. Par- 
sons. 

"Among School Gardens," M. L. Green. 

"How to Make School Gardens," H. D. Hemenway. 



Farmers 


' Bulletins: 


No. 


218. 


"The School Garden." 


No. 


232. 


"Okra, Its Culture and Uses." 


No. 


254. 


"Cucumbers." 


No. 


289. 


"Beans." 


No. 


354. 


"Onion Culture." 


No. 


856. 


"Diseases and Insect Enemies of the Home Vegetable 


Garden.' 


i> 



SCHOOL GARDEN AND FARM 235 

No. 934. "Home Gardening in the South." 
No. 1044. "The City Home Garden." 
No. 1242. "Permanent Fruit and Vegetable Gardens." 
The A. and M. College of Texas Extension Service : 

Bulletin No. B-44. "A Home Garden." 

Farm and Home Hints on "Growing and Pruning Tomatoes" and 
"Storing Irish Potatoes for Fall Planting." 



CHAPTER X 
FRUIT-GROWING AND SHADE-TREES 

224. The Home Fruit Garden and Commercial Or- 
chards. — With fruits as with vegetables we must first learn 
about the home fruit garden. The growing of fruits in 
large quantities for the market or commercial orcharding 
must be left for later study in the references and in advanced 
courses in horticulture (hor'ti-kul-tur), the branch of agricult- 
ure which deals with garden and orchard crops. Horticult- 
ure comes from the Latin words hortus, a garden, and cul- 
tura, cultivation. Fruit-growing for the market is a very 
profitable business in many parts of Texas, and as soon as 
more growers learn the science of horticulture it will be more 
so. A study of the home fruit garden, or home orchard, 
will be the best beginning in this subject. 

225. Value of Home-Grown Fruits. — For thousands and 
thousands of years before man learned to plant field crops 
and vegetables, or to cook his food, fruit made up a large 
part of his diet. Sound ripe fruit is still one of the most 
wholesome and delicious of foods. We need such food in 
both summer and winter to keep ourselves at the highest 
point of physical and mental power. At present a large 
part of the market fruit is picked when green, is ripened un- 
naturally, and is frequently stored for long seasons in great 
refrigerators, so that it is not only expensive but often taste- 
less and unwholesome when it reaches the consumer. Every 

236 



FEUIT-GROWING AND SHADE-TREES 



237 



farmer at very small expense can produce at home far better 
and more wholesome fruit than he can buy; for the tenderest 
and most delicious varieties of fruit are not usually raised 
for the market, as, with a few exceptions, they do not keep 





Jt-i^._ 




I^^^HE . ...ia 


■ 111 

^1 1 ^' 3 


i^ 1 




! 





Fig. 138. Home-canned fruit on a Texas farm. 

Courtesy of " Farm and Ranch." 



well nor stand the rough handling in shipping. Let us 
therefore learn how to grow fruits at home. 

226. Fruits at All Seasons. — It is possible to have a 
succession of fruits ripening during almost the entire grow- 
ing season, and to finish out the year with stored fruits, 
grape juice, canned and dried fruits, marmalade, jams, and 
fruit butters, all prepared at home at small expense. With 
fruits as with vegetables, no one list will suit all sections. 
Oranges and lemons which grow in south Texas will freeze 
in central Texas. Apples that make splendid crops in north 



238 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

Texas, do not succeed as well in south Texas. Cherries and 
gooseberries which are popular in the North cannot stand 
the hot, dry summer of the Southwest. Each one must 
learn by inquiry and experiment just what fruits grow well 
in his locality. If possible, every home should have some of 



Fig. 139. A four-year-old fig orchard at Algoa, Texas. 

each of the following: strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, 
dewberries, plums, apricots, peaches, pears, apples, per- 
simmons, figs, grapes, and, in the semi-tropical districts, 
oranges, lemons, and pomegranates. The strawberries give 
the earliest fruit, followed by the other berries, the plums, 
apricots, apples, peaches, and pears. There are so many 
varieties of peaches which ripen at such different seasons, 
and grow well over such a wide area, that a well-selected 
orchard will furnish fresh peaches from June until late fall. 
Apples have even a wider distribution. Every wise farmer 



FRUIT-GROWING AND SHADE-TREES 239 

should test out new fruits and new varieties occasionally, as 
only in this way can he learn just what is suited to his soil 
and climate. However, in most cases, it is best to plant 
such fruits as neighbors and near-by nurserymen have tested 
and found suitable. 

227. Where to Locate the Orchard. — The orchard should 
be located on a hill-side, where the drainage is good and 
where the trees are somewhat protected from the cold 
winds. If planted in a bottom, the trees are apt to bloom 
too early and cause the crop to be destroyed by late frosts. 
Fungus diseases also are more troublesome in valleys. No 
one soil suits all fruits equally well. All demand good drain- 
age. The plum, quince, and pear do best on a heavy soil, 
peaches on a rich sandy loam. Some varieties of grapes do 
well on a heavy soil, some on either a heavy or a light soil, 
and some only on a light soil. The soil should not be very 
rich in nitrogen, as this tends to produce too much vine and 
little fruit. If there is no soil perfectly suited to a mixed 
orchard, it is possible to improve it greatly before the trees 
are planted by adding sand, ashes, humus, or whatever is 
needed by each fruit to the particular spot on which it is 
to be planted. 

228. How to Plant an Orchard. — Orchards are usually 
planted in regular rows according to the plan shown in 
Figure 140. The equilateral triangle method shown in 
Figure 141 gives a more even distribution on the land and 
enables one to put more trees on the same amount of ground 
without crowding. The rows should be carefully laid off 
and trees so planted that the straight rows show plainly 
from all directions. Peach-trees are usually set about six- 
teen to twenty feet apart, apples from thirty to forty feet, 



240 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



O o-vr-"C;>- 

• I 11.1 y 



o o 



Oi 

oi f; 

I I 



(^AOn:.0....l..^ ^ 




O- -0-- 6- -6- 



Fig. 140. Planting in squares. 

bunch grapes in rows eight, and blackberries in rows six feet 
apart. 

You have already learned about transplanting, and there- 
fore know before being told that fruit trees should be moved 
when dormant, that from one-half to two-thirds of the top 
should be cut off, that the roots should be disturbed as little 
as possible, should never be allowed to dry, should have all 
bruised and broken parts trimmed off smooth, should be 
spread out in natural order in the ground, should be set in 

Q:-VoVt:-1R--:!— <>— ^ "<>— ^•— P 



\ 



">'») 






/ \ / ^ '' ^ / \ 



Fig. 141. The equilateral triangle-planting plan, which, by giving a better 
distribution over the land, allows more trees per acre without crowding thaii 
does the square-planting plan. 



FRUIT-GROWING AND SHADE-TREES 



241 



moist soil, and should have the soil packed closely around 
them. While it is usually not practicable to move soil and 
root together, it is well to take as many healthy roots as 
possible. As soon as dug the roots of the young tree should 
be covered with a moist wrapping, carried to the orchard, 




Fig. 142. The tree on the right was planted in a hole that had been dy- 
namited. The hole on the left had not been dynamited. Note the increased 
root growth and deeper rooting in the dynamited hole. 
Courtesy of " Farm and Ranch." 



and never uncovered until the hole is dug and all is ready, so 
that the roots can at once be covered with soil. 

The hole for a tree should be dug large enough to re- 
ceive the roots in natural order. If the roots are too long 
to do this economically, they should be cut back somewhat. 
They should not be doubled up. The soil should be loosened 
up a spade's depth below the bottom of the hole. Unless 
the top soil Is very deep it is usually advisable, after the hole 
is dug and before the tree is set, to bore down with an earth 
auger about three feet below the bottom of the hole and 



242 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

break up the subsoil with a blast of d^^namite. This is very 
easy to do, and is not dangerous work if the proper precau- 
tions are used. The directions are given in pamphlets sent 
out by the manufacturers upon request. It is not advisable 
for young boys to attempt the use of dynamite. The dyna- 
mite loosens the soil and makes large storage room for soil 
water, so that the roots of the plant not only go down more 
easily but have a better water supply. When the hole is 
being dug the top soil should be thrown on one side, as it is 
usually the best soil, and should be put back into the hole 
immediately touching the roots. Manure should not be 
placed in contact with the roots, though it is sometimes 
advisable in poor land to put some well-rotted manure in the 
hole away from the roots and in the soil that is used for 
filling in above them. The trees should be set in the orchard 
as deep as they grew in the nursery or about two inches 
deeper. The soil should be tramped well around the roots 
and loose soil raked over the surface of the packed soil. 

229. How to Handle Bought Trees. — When trees are 
bought from a nursery-man they should be planted out as 
soon as received. Each should be taken from the wrapping 
only after the hole is prepared and when it can be imme- 
diately covered with moist earth. Many transplanted trees 
die because the roots were allowed to lie exposed to the air 
until they were dried out. In case it is not practicable to 
plant the trees as soon as received, open up in a well-drained 
spot a sloping trench deep enough to admit all the roots and 
a bit of the stems of the young trees. Place the trees in this 
close together and cover with moist earth, packing it in 
carefully so that the roots are in close contact with the moist 
soil. If the soil is not moist, water should be poured into 



FRUIT-GROWING AND SHADE-TREES 



243 



the hole before the final layer of loose dirt is drawn around 
the trees. This temporary placing of plants in the soil for 
protection is called "heeling in.^^ If the soil is well drained 
and is kept moist, heeled-in plants will keep perfectly until 
a favorable transplanting 
season. 

230. Pruning.— All fruit 
trees, bushes, and vines 
require pruning, both to 
improve their appearance 
and to promote the most 
advantageous fruiting. 
Usually from one-fourth 
to one-half of the annual 
growth should be cut off 
for the first two years 
after planting. After this 
the pruning needed dif- 
fers according to the cir- 
cumstances and to the 
kind of fruit. The gen- 
eral aims of pruning should be to take out awkwardly 
shaped limbs, thin out the lateral branches so that sun- 
light can get in to the fruit, cut back the long branches 
so that they will not break with fruit, promote the growth 
of fruiting branches, and so direct the growth that the 
tree will be well proportioned and symmetrical. Trees 
should be pruned when dormant, though at times additional 
summer pruning is advisable. Many leading horticultu- 
rists now hold that summer pruning is very desirable, 
and that the shock thus given the tree tends to cause it 




Pig. 143. Pruning nursery trees. On the 
right the tree is improperly pruned, not 
enough being taken off. The one in the 
centre is correctly pruned. — After Halligan. 



244 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 




Fig. 144. Pruned to direct 
growth. The growth will 
be in the direction taken by 
the topmost bud left when 
the branch is cut ofif, as this 
bud grows most rapidly. 
This being true, in what di- 
rection will each limb in the 
cut above grow ? 



to fruit better. It is a well-known 
fact that when trees are severely in- 
jured they tend to put their ener- 
gies at once into fruiting, as if the 
tree were trying to make sure of 
leaving a new generation in case of 
its death. 

The apple and the pear bear their 
fruits upon short branches of the 
previous year's growth, called /rmim^r 
spurs, which, grow out from limbs that 
are one year or more old. The bear- 
ing shoots are not usually the long 
ones near the ends of the branches. 
In pruning care must be taken, there- 
fore, not to cut off too many of the short fruiting spurs. 
The peach bears on wood of the last sea- 
son's growth, but directly on the branches 
instead of on spurs. With the peach cut- 
ting back the long branches is necessary 
in order to limit the crop and prevent the 
tree's breaking. The Japanese plum fruits 
on both spurs and year-old wood, and 
may well be cut back similarly to the 
peach. The quince bears its fruit at the 
end of new shoots of the present season's 
growth, so that the pruning must be such 
as will stimulate new growth without 
goinsr so far as to limit too greatly the Fig. 145. The right 

* * „, 1 1 p -x xi, way to cut off the old 

crop. I he grape also bears iruit upon tne stem after the new 

, , p ,, , 1 ' -I 11 budded branch has 

shoots 01 the present season, wnicn usually got started. 




FRUIT-GROWING AND SHADE-TREES 



245 



come out from canes of the past season. For this reason the 
vines should be cut back severely each year, as the long canes 
of old wood bear no fruit. The Munson system of training, 
as illustrated in Figure 146, is recognized as standard, unless 
it is desired to make an arbor. The diagram makes this so 
plain that explanations are unnecessary. Even when the 




TOP VIEW OF TRtaiS 



Fig. 146. The Munson system of grape culture. 
From "Foundations of American Grape Culture." 

shade of an arbor is desired, better results will be secured if 
the vines are planted close together, and the lateral branches 
trained out in regular order, and the canes cut back each 
year in a manner similar to that illustrated in Figure 146. 
Under this system the new growth will soon cover over an 
entire arbor each year, if the old canes have been properly 
trained and trimmed. In pruning the grape, care must be 
taken not to cut the vines just as the sap is beginning to 
flow in the spring. They may be safely cut later in the 
season, but the proper time for pruning is when the vine is 
dormant. Blackberries and raspberries also need severe 
pruning, as they bear their fruit on short shoots growing out 
from canes of the previous season's growth. Strawberries 
bear best the first year, and after two years should be taken 
out and room given to young plants. 



246 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



231. Cultivation. — Fruit trees need cultivation for the 
same reasons that other plants need it. If weeds are left 
to absorb the food materials and water, and the soil allowed 
to crust over and the water to evaporate, a rapid growth of 
the trees cannot be expected. When trees are young and 




Fig. 147. A young vine that shows how grapes flourish in the Southwest. 



the roots short, it does no harm to plant vegetables or other 
shallow growing crops among them, but after the trees have 
been planted a few years, the soil should be cultivated clean 
during the growing season of the trees, so that the constant 
soil mulch will hold the water in the soil for the use of the 
trees. After the middle of the summer a fall crop of clover, 
oats, bur-clover, or other winter cover crop should be planted, 
as this protects the soil from winter washing and leaching 




Fig. 148. Clean cultivation. 




Fig. 149. Peas in tlie middles. 



248 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



and supplies vegetable matter to turn under in the spring. 
If a legume is planted in this way, or in the middles earlier 
in the season, the amount of manure or fertilizer that should 




Fig. 150. Gathering apples. The temperature fell to 17° at flowering 
time, but the orchard smudges saved this crop. 

Courtesy of " Farm and Ranch." 

be added is greatly lessened. Trees cannot be expected to 
bear heavy crops each year unless food materials are supplied. 
It is especially necessary that an abundant supply be given 
when a large crop is being borne, as the tree must during this 
season lay aside enough reserve food to mature all its fruit, 



I 



FRUIT-GROWING AND SHADE-TREES 



249 



and also enough to start the new crop the next year, and sus- 
tain the tree until its new leaves are developed. It is usually 
unwise to allow the trees to bear very heavy crops. Peaches 
especially should be thinned, so that they are about five 




Fig. 151. A young fruiting pecan-tree. The early fruiting varieties bear 
the second year after being budded and occasionally the first year. 
Courtesy of " Farm and Ranch." 

inches apart on the stem. This increases the size of the 
fruit and, by lessening the drain on the tree, makes it more 
likely that a crop will be produced the next year. 

232. Protection From Cold. — In our changeable climate 
the loss of an entire fruit crop from early blooming and a 
late frost has been a serious drawback to the growing of 
fruit. Often the entire crop could be saved by protecting the 



250 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 




orchard one night. It has been found possible to do this 
economically, even in our windy country, by the use of slow- 
burning orchard fires, or smudges, as they are called. These 
fires are usually made by burning crude oil in the orchard 
in vessels which hold two or three gallons of oil, and are so 
constructed as to keep a slow fire burning for many hours 

on one filling. 
These have 
been known to 
raise the tem- 
perature of an 
orchard six to 
eight degrees. 
Where there is 
much wind the 
change in tem- 
perature is not 
so great. An- 
other protection 
for the orchard 
is a row of ever- 
green trees on 
the side from which the cold winds usually come. Now that 
the use of these protections is understood, it is possible to save 
the fruit crop practically every year at a very small expense. 
233. Nut-Trees. — Every country home should have a 
few nut-trees. The native walnuts, hickories, and pecans 
grow in almost all sections when properly cared for. It 
seems probable that the budded and grafted Persian walnut, 
or " English walnut " as it is usually called, will also grow 
in many sections. Certainly the fine thin-shelled pecans, 



Fig. 152. No. 1. Limb cut off too far from the tree 
and cannot heal. No. 2. The same limb with the heart 
decayed and the decay carried into the heart of the 
tree (after Davis). No. 3. On the lower branch the 
right point at which to cut off a limb is shown. A cut 
should first be made one-third through on the under 
side of limb at A, in order to prevent splitting the tree. 
Then saw through from above at B. The upper branch 
illustrates the best method to follow when a very large 
limb is to be cut off and the danger of splitting is very 
great. Saw first at A, and then saw above a little fur- 
ther out on the limb until it breaks off. Then the limb 
may be easily cut off properly at C D. 



FRUIT-GROWING AND SHADE-TREES 251 

the most delicious of all nuts, grow to perfection over a very 
large part of the Southwest. These trees grow and bear on 
the plains and on high hills, but do best along the river 
bottoms. For many years it was thought that pecans 
would not bear till ten or twelve years old, but varieties are 
now found and propagated which bear within two years of 
the time they are budded. Occasionally nuts are borne the 
first year after the tree is budded. With these early fruiting 
varieties, such as Halbert and Texas Prolific, which are most 
delicious ^' paper-shell " varieties, it is now possible to have 
a young pecan orchard bearing fair crops almost as soon as 
a peach orchard, if one cultivates and fertilizes properly the 
young trees. Furthermore, the best-selected varieties of 
pecans bear regularly. Wherever there is a native pecan-tree 
that is not giving a good annual crop of nuts, it should be 
cut back and grafted, or budded with a standard variety in 
the manner explained in Chapter III. When budded on large 
trees, the new buds grow much more rapidly than when set 
on nursery stocks, and hence a large fruiting is secured much 
earlier by budding on the old trees than by setting out a 
young orchard. 

234. Shade-Trees. — ^The comfort and beauty of shade- 
trees are so much enjoyed by all that it is surprising to see 
so many homes and towns without shade. The fact that it 
takes so long for a tree to grow large enough to give shade 
is undoubtedly the principal cause of this neglect. Let us 
remember the joy and comfort given us by the trees planted 
by those who went before us, and prepare for our descendants 
and for our own middle life and old age by planting the 
splendid, long-lived trees, such as oak, elm, hickory, and 
pecan. Even in ten or fifteen years these trees will give 



252 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



considerable shade. It is best when planting these slow- 
growing, long-lived trees to plant in between them the 
quick-growing, short-lived ones, such as the umbrella china- 
berry, the Cottonwood, and sycamore. The hackberry is a 
tree of fairly rapid growth that makes a fine shade, will grow 




Fig. 153. Decayed tree after and before being filled with conrete. 



in almost any soil, stands drought well, and is comparatively 
free from insect attack. An objection to it is that it is very 
difficult to grow grass or flowers under it or near its roots. 
The proper methods of planting and caring for trees have 
already been given, and the methods of protecting fruit, nut, 
and shade trees from the ravages of insects and diseases will 
be given in the next chapter. 



FRUIT-GROWING AND SHADE-TREES 



253 



Warning should be given against the bad habit so often 
practised of sawing off short the stems of large trees, six 
inches or more in diameter, when transplanting, and of 
severely cutting back large shade trees every few years. 
When a tree is transplanted, the cambium layer is unable 




Fig. 154. School-boys grafting an apple-tree in a neighbor's yard under the 
direction of the teacher. 

Courtesy of U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



to heal over the wound if the stem is cut off at a point at 
which the diameter is six or more inches. Decay will there- 
fore soon enter the tree. The transplanted tree, when large, 
should be cut off higher up where the diameter is not over 
three or four inches, and the lateral branches thus left on 



254 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

the stem should be cut back, leaving stubs one or more feet 
long. Care, however, must be taken not to allow more 
leaves to grow the first year than the crippled roots can sup- 
ply with water. After the first year or so, unsightly branches 
should be cut out, the growth balanced and directed by prun- 
ing, and long limbs that are in danger of being broken by 
the wind cut back, but wholesale severe cutting spoils the 
natural gracefulness of the branches and retards the growth. 

235. Filling Decayed Trees. — ^Through unwise pruning 
or through other mishap, many fine trees get decay in the 
heart wood. Unless arrested this will soon eat out all the 
heart wood, so that the tree will break in the first severe 
wind. Such decay may be arrested, and the life of the tree 
indefinitely prolonged, by proper treatment. All of the de- 
cayed material should be carefully cut away and cleaned 
out, the entire cavity washed thoroughly with an antiseptic 
solution* and then filled with concrete. The concrete is 
usually made with one part cement and two parts sand, or 
with equal amounts of each. The cavity is completely filled 
up to the edge of the growing wood, as shown in Figure 153. 
When the cement is set, the entire surface is covered over 
with coal tar, to make sure of filling all cracks. If properly 
done, this will prevent further decay, and if the opening is 
not too large, it will be covered slowly by new tissue thrown 
out by the cambium layer. 

236. The Arrangement of Shade-Trees. — In the chapter 
on the School and Home Grounds, the proper arrangement 
of trees, shrubs, and flowers will be explained. 

* The Bordeaux mixture and the formahn solution given on page 282 
are good antiseptics for this purpose. An antiseptic (an-tl-s6p'tlk) is 
something that destroys the germs which produce disease. 



FRUIT-GROWING AND SHADE-TREES 255 



QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES 

132. How much land is devoted to fruit on your farm? Give the num- 

ber of trees or vines of each kind. 

133. Select a spot for an orchard on your place and state why you 

select this spot, describing soil, subsoil, drainage, and protec- 
tion. 

134. Make out a planting plan for a home orchard for your family, 

giving a diagram of the proposed orchard and the location of 
each tree, bush, and vine, with names of varieties. State why 
each variety is selected. 

135. State what you would do to the soil around each of the kinds of 

trees or vines that you plant. 

136. State how you would handle this orchard each year, and what 

returns you should expect each year. 

137. Working in pairs, let each two pupils set out under direction of 

the teacher either in the school orchard or at home at least two 
kinds of fruit trees and vines, getting actual experience in root 
and top pruning, and in correct planting. 

138. Heel in correctly some young trees. 

139. By use of the school orchard and of neighboring orchards, let each 

pupil, under the direction of the teacher, practise in pruning: 
(1) to direct growth, (2) to prevent breaking, (3) to regulate 
fruiting, and (4) to improve the appearance. 

140. Prune and train two grape-vines according to the Munson system, 

and leave two equally vigorous vines of the same variety to run 
freely. Make an accurate measure of the fruit produced by 
each of these for tliree years. 

141. Why is it better to have a tree bear 100 peaches that fill a 

bushel measure rather than 200 peaches that only fill the 
same measure? First, which crop will bring most money? 
Second, which will make the greater drain on the soil, and why 
so? Third, which will make the greater drain on the tree and 
make it less likely that the tree can bear a good crop the follow- 
ing year? Why so? 

142. Make careful records each year of the number of hours it would 

be necessary to protect the orchards from cold in your locality. 
Compare the cost of such protection and the cost of the fruit 
losses. 



256 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

143. How many nut-trees are there on your place? If there are any, 
cut off and top graft and top bud some of these. If there are 
none, plant nuts, and bud or graft the seedlings with fine varieties. 
Buds can be bought usually for a cent or two each from neigh- 
boring nursery-men. 

14 i. Let each class plant one or more shade-trees on the school grounds, 
planting some slow-growing trees, such as the pecan, and some 
rapid-growing ones. 

145. Find a decaying tree in the grounds or in a neighbor's yard, and 

with the aid of the teacher give a demonstration of filling the 
cavity with concrete. 

146. Find edible wild fruits in your locality, pick out especially desirable 

specimens, transplant these, and see what improvement can be 
made in them by cultivation, by variation and selection, and by 
hybridization. 



REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING 

"Productive Fruit Growing," F. C. Sears. 

*' Fundamentals of Fruit Production," Gardner, Bradford and Hooker. 

''Productive Small Fruit Culture," F. C. Sears. 

"Modern Fruit Marketing," B. S. Brown. 

"Manual of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits," P. Popenoe. 

"Manual of Fruit Insects," Slingerland and Crosby. 

"Principles of Fruit-Growing," L. H. Bailey. 

"How to Make a Fruit Garden," S. W. Fletcher. 

"Fruit-Growing in Arid Regions," Paddock and Whipple. 

"Foundations of American Grape Culture," T. V. Munson. 

"Fruit Harvesting, Storing, Marketing," F. A. Waugh. 

"Bush Fruits," F. W. Card. 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

No. 157. "Propagation of Plants." 
No. 181. "Pruning." 

Nos. 440, 1246, on insects and diseases of peaches. 
No. 471. "Grape Propagation, Pruning, and Training." 
No. 482. "Pear and How to Grow It." 

Nos. 492, 662, 675, 722, 938, 1065, 1120, 1160, on insects and dis- 
eases of apples. 



I 



FRUIT-GROWING AND SHADE-TREES 257 

No. 643. "Blackberry Culture." 

No. 728. ''Dewberry Culture." 

No. 908. "Information for Fruit Growers About Insecticides, 
Spraying Apparatus, and Important Insect Pests." 

Nos. 917, 918, 1266, on growing and packing peaches. 

Nos. 1026, 1027, 1028, 1043, on strawberry culture. 

No. 1261. "The Avocado: Its Insect Enemies and How to Com- 
bat Them." 

Forest Service Circulars, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 
No. 61. "How to Transplant Forest Trees." 
No. 130. "Forestry in the Public Schools." 
No. 157. "A Primer of Conservation." 

Year Book Reprint, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 

No. 519. "Prevention of Frost Injury to Fruit Crops." 

Texas Experiment Station Bulletins: 
No. 208. "The Fig in Texas." 
No. 293. "Cultivation and Care of Trees on Texas Farms." 

The A, and M. College of Texas Extension Service Bulletins: 
B. 56. "Pecan Culture in Texas." 
Vol. 3, No. 1. "Tree Planting Needed in Texas." 
No. 29. "Peaches in Texas." 



CHAPTER XI 



PLANT ENEMIES 



237. Varieties of Plant Enemies. — The enemies of the 
farm, garden, and orchard are usually grouped into five 
classes: (1) weeds, which injure crops by depriving them 
of Hght, water, and food materials; (2) animals and birds 
(while most birds are very helpful to crops through destroy- 
ing harmful insects, a few do considerable 
damage) ; (3) parasitic plants, such as mis- 
tletoe; (4) insects; (5) diseases. In this 
course we shall consider only the insects 
and diseases, leaving the others for later 
study. 

238. Losses from Insects and Diseases. 
— The annual losses from insects alone in 
this country are estimated at from three 
hundred million dollars to seven hundred 
million dollars. The loss on the potato 
crop alone is six million dollars, on cotton 
fifteen million dollars, on corn thirty-seven 
million dollars, on stored grain sixty million dollars. The 
Hessian fly destroys each year about five million dollars', the 
chinch-bug seven million dollars', and the boll-weevil eight 
million dollars' worth of crops. In many cases the losses 
were formerly much greater than they now are. In 1880 the 
cotton-worm alone did fifty million dollars' worth of damage. 

258 




Fig. 155. An in- 
expensive cage in 
whicli to keep insects 
for study. 




Fig. 156. 



Black rot on grapes: above, sprayed; below, unsprayed. 
Courtesy of U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



260 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



The losses from insects in Texas alone are estimated at fifty 
million dollars a year, about ten times the annual appropria- 
tion by the Legislature for all purposes, seven times as much 
as the State spends on its public schools, and eighty-five 

times as much as it 
appropriates for all 
the higher educa- 
tional institutions. 
Effective means of 
combating many of 
these pests are now 
known and new 
means are constantly 
being discovered. It 
is estimated that if 
all farmers knew and 
applied what is now 
known about con- 
trolling insects, two- 
thirds of the crops 
lost each year could 
be saved. The year- 
ly losses from dis- 
ease are even larger than those caused by insects. These 
also can be largely prevented by making use of the knowl- 
edge already gained by scientific study. 

239. Why Insect Pests Have Increased.— There are 
many reasons why insects injurious to cultivated plants have 
increased in recent years. For these same reasons they will 
increase still more in future if proper precautions are not 
taken. In the first place the wild trees and plants have 




Fig. 157. The Colorado potato-beetle: a, bee- 
tle; 6, masses of eggs ; c, half-grown larvae; d, ma- 
ture larvae. 

Courtesy of U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



PLANT ENEMIES 



261 





Fig. 158. 
from the side; 



The cotton-boll weevil: A, as seen from above; B, as viewed 
C, larva; D, pupa. All about five times the natural size. 
Courtesy of U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



been cut down and the land put under cultivation, so that 
the insects which formerly fed on wild plants must now feed 
on cultivated crops. These crops are grown with more cer- 
tainty and regularity than the wild plants were, and hence 




Fig. 159. A, square punctured by boll-weevil, showing the flaring back of 
the bracts; B, the weevil maturing within the boll. 

Courtesy of U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



262 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

support the insects better. Then, too, the cultivated places, 
which used to be more or less separated from one another, 
are coming more and more to be contiguous, so that the pests 
can pass directly from one field to another. Again, as more 
kinds of new plants are cultivated, the varieties of insects 
that attack these are multiplied and brought to our attention. 
Probably most effective of all in scattering these plant enemies 
have been the improved means of transportation. Both in- 
sects and diseases are shipped into new districts along with 
foodstuffs, seeds, or nursery plants. It is for this reason 
that the transportation of seed, nursery stock, or other mate- 
rial likely to spread disease or insects should be strictly 
regulated by law. 

240. The Spread of Black Rot, Boll-Weevils, and Colo- 
rado Beetles. — There are many remarkable examples of 
the spread of plant diseases. One of the most notable 
is the spread of the black rot of grapes. When the early 
settlers came to America they found the wild grapes here 
afflicted with this disease, which was then unknown in 
Europe. They sent some of these native vines back to 
Europe, with the result that this disease soon broke out in 
the European vineyards. Ever since that time this disease 
has caused great losses in the vineyards there, which must 
even yet be carefully sprayed to prevent very serious dam- 
age to the crop. 

We have in America two recent instances of the rapid 
spread of a new insect pest. The ordinary potato-beetle, 
commonly called the '' potato-bug," first appeared in the 
potato fields of Colorado about 1855. It had been living in 
that State on wild plants akin to the potato, and when the 
cultivated potato was brought to Colorado by settlers the 



PLANT ENEMIES 



203 



beetles attacked it and throve on it so well that they multi- 
plied and spread rapidly over the country. By 1864 they 
had extended to the Mississippi, and in 1874 reached the 




Fig. 160. Chart showing the spread of the cotton-boll weevil. 

Courtesy of U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



Atlantic States. The Mexican cotton-boll weevil crossed the 
Rio Grande about 1892. It had for years infested the cotton 
of Mexico, and in some districts had forced the abandonment 
of cotton cultivation altogether. In less than twenty years 
this pest spread nearly all over Texas, and is now ravaging 
the fields of Arkansas, Louisiana, and other Southern States, 



264 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



It will doubtless soon cover the entire cotton-growing area of 
America. 

241. What Must Be Known to Combat Plant Enemies. — 
These facts show how extremely important it is that we ob- 
tain a knowledge of 

•-"~ "^^^%^\ //0^---^^^ these insects and dis- 

^ ■ ■' eases, and of the 

means of controlling 
them. While the 
damages of only a 
few can be entirely 
prevented, it is possi- 
ble to reduce greatly 
the damage of all, 
and to prevent their 
rapid increase and 
spread. Let us then 
first see what insects 
are, and how they 
live and multiply, for 
it is by knowing their 
habits and life his- 
tory that we learn how to destroy or prevent them. After 
this we shall study the causes of plant diseases and learn 
the means of controlling them. 

242. Insects. — Insects are the most numerous of all forms 
of animal life visible to the naked eye. They vary greatly 
in appearance, but all have three pairs of legs and three dis- 
tinct parts to their bodies, head, thorax, and abdomen. To 
the head are attached the feelers, or antennoB (an-ten'ne), 
the eyes, and the mouth parts. The thorax has three seg- 




FiQ. 161. The cabbage-worm: a, female but- 
terfly; 6, egg, end and side views; c, larva on 
leaf; d, suspended chrysalis. 

Courtesy of U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



PLANT ENEMIES 



265 



ments, to each of which is attached a pair of legs. In the 
adult stage one or two pairs of wings are also usually at- 
tached to the thorax. In nearly all cases insects hatch from 
eggs, and pass through several different forms before reach- 
ing their final shape. The typical insect passes through four 
stages, the egg, the larva (larVa), 
the puya (pu'pa), the adult, or 
imago (i-ma'go). The larva may 
be entirely unlike the adult into 
which it will develop, as in the 
case of the caterpillar, which is 
the larva of a butterfly or a moth. 
During the larval stage the worm- 
like creature usually eats vora- 
ciously, does its great damage to 
crops, and grows rapidl}^ until the 
skin hardens and refuses to grow 
further. Then it goes into a dor- 
mant-looking state and is called 
a pupa. The larva may spin a 
web case around itself, in which it 
lives as a pupa, or it may go into 
a cell in the ground or attach 
itself to a plant. While in its case 

the pupa (or chrysalis (kris'a-lis) as it is called in the case 
of the butterfly) undergoes a wonderful change, and in due 
season comes out in the new form of the full-grown insect; 
as, for example, the ugly larval caterpillar pupates and 
comes out a beautiful butterfly or moth, and the cutworm 
becomes a moth. While the four stages — Qg^, larva, pupa, 
adult — are the usual stages, many insects omit one or two of 




Fig. 162. Above, nymph of 
grasshopper in natural position; 
below, the empty pupa skin. 
Courtesy of U. S. Department 
of Agriculture. 



266 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



these. For example, grasshoppers and several other insects 
are quite like the adult when hatched and have no pupa 

stage at all. These when young 
are called nymph- instead of 
larvae. 

Many kinds of insects after 
passing through their various 
stages of growth and becoming 
adults live only long enough to 
deposit eggs, not even living to 
see their own young hatched. 
Others, like the boll-weevil, 
may live through a season, 
producing several sets of off- 
spring. The time required by 
insects to pass through all 
their various stages, or life 
cycle (si'kl), as it is called, 
varies from a few days or few 
weeks in most cases to many 
years in a few cases. Insects 
live from one season to the 
next often only in the form of 
eggs or pupge. In other cases 
the adults that may be still 
active at the approach of cold 
weather hide away under leaves or grass or trash or bark 
or in basements, or burrow into the ground and remain quiet 
until spring — occasionally even being frozen without caus- 
ing death. This spending of the winter in an inactive 
state is called hibernation (hi-ber-na'shiin). In spring 



\ 






\%xm\^ 




( EIO V' 


1 




n^^ 


^ 


Yrr^^ 


o^?-V!^— jSo 


^ 


tr I 




5j|OWv\\ 


mq^ 






Sf^rfe 






Ve--/^ 


S— — ^ 






5p,- <d 


iv^ 








tf-^ 


i 



Fig. 163. A typical insect. A, 
head; Bj to B3, three segments of 
thorax, each with a pair of legs; Spi 
to Spio. spiracles. — After Kalbe. 



PLANT ENEMIES 



26- 



those hibernating insects that have not died become active 
again, lay eggs, and start a new generation. 

243. How Insects Feed and Breathe.^Some insects feed 
by biting and chewing their food, as do the potato-beetle, 
grasshopper, and cotton-leaf 
worm. Others, such as the 
plant-lice, San Jose scale, and 
boll-weevil, puncture the plant 
and feed by sucking out the 
juices. Insects do not breathe 
through a mouth or nose as we 
do, but through a number of del- 
icate little slits called spiracles 
(spir'a-klz) distributed along 
the sides of the thorax and abdo- 
men. It is by a knowledge of the 
various stages through which 
insects pass, and of their eating 
and breathing characteristics, 

that successful methods of destroying them are devised. 

244. How Insects Are Destroyed. — If an insect gets its 
food by biting and chewing the plants, it is easy to destroy 
it by putting poison on the part attacked, as we put Paris 
green on the potato-plants to destroy the potato-beetle larvae 
which eat the leaves. If the insect gets its food by punctur- 
ing the plant and sucking out the juice, then such poisons 
will not reach it. The sucking insects must be killed by 
contact poisons or by sprays that get into their breathing 
pores or spiracles and choke them to death, such as the oil 
emulsions, and lime and sulphur sprays, with which plant- 
lice and San Jose scale are destroyed. The formula? for 




Fig. 164. A bucket spray pump. 



268 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



making and directions for using the most important of these 
insect-destroying mixtures will be given later. Each insect 
usually has a very limited number of plants that it will eat. 
The ear-worm of corn will feed also on cotton, tomatoes, 

and tobacco; but 
many insects will 
feed on only one 
class of plants. 
By refraining for 
a year or two from 
planting the par- 
ticular crops on 
which they feed, 
one may often 
starve to death in- 
sects which have 
a limited range of 
foods. 

245. General 
Methods of Com- 
bating Insect 
Pests. — Besides 
being destroyed 
by poisons, insects 
may be very largely controlled by a wise general manage- 
ment of the farm through cleaning up the fields, destroying 
weeds and volunteer crops, deep fall plowing, trap crops, 
properly timing the crops, and the wise use of rotation. 

When crops are harvested remnants are often left stand- 
ing in the field on which insects continue to multiply until 
the end of the season, thus preparing fresh trouble for the 




Fig. 165. A barrel spraying apparatus. 



PLANT ENEMIES 



269 



following year. These crop remnants should either be used 
to poison the insects or should be plowed under completely 
so as to bury some of the insects and leave no food for others. 
The wheat-worm and the corn-stalk borer both winter in the 




Fig. 166. A power spraying apparatus. 

Courtesy of " Farm and Ranch." 



stubble of these crops. The boll- weevils continue to multiply 
on cotton until they hibernate. Many kinds of insects live 
in the grass, stubble, and rubbish left in parts of fields and 
along fence rows. Most of this should be turned under in 
the fall, and the fields and fence rows cleaned, only a few 
small piles of rubbish being left as traps. Hordes of insects 
will gather in these piles, which should then be burned. 
While usually all stubble should be turned under to enrich 
the soil, occasionally it is advisable to burn over stubble and 



270 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

grass land to destroy such pests as army-worms, chinch-bugs, 
and locusts. 

Weeds and volunteer crops are another means of support- 
ing pests when there is nothing else left for them to eat. 




Fig. 167. Apples from a sprayed tree. On the left are the perfect apples 
(98.3 per cent), on the right are the wormy apples (1.7 per cent). In an 
orchard of 325 trees twelve to twenty years old, the cost of spraying was 23 
cents per tree, materials being bought at wholesale prices. The sprayed trees 
averaged over 95 per cent sound and the unsprayed only 58 per cent sound 
apples. The yield was increased from three to seven bushels per tree by spray- 
ing. 

Courtesy of Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station. 



The Hessian fly, for instance, feeds on volunteer wheat. 
Many larval forms also feed on weeds. The surrounding 
weeds are a great source of supply for garden cutworms. 

In general, deep fall plowing is very helpful. In addi- 
tion to turning under material on which the pests feed, or 



I 



PLANT ENEMIES 



271 




KILLDEER 
BENEFICIAL ANIMALS 



TOAD 



FRUITS |°o°o°o°oi 



GRAIN 



HORNED LIZZARO 



INJURIOUS ANIMALS 
WILD SEEDS 



Fia. 168. The foods of some helpful birds and wild animals. 
After Ferguson and Lewis. 



272 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

in which they hibernate, it helps to destroy many larval 
forms in the ground, such as the corn-stalk borers, corn-ear 
worms, cutworms, locusts, and wire-worms. Some of these 
are broken, some brought to the surface where they die, and 
some buried so deep that they can never get out. Grass- 
hopper eggs and boll-weevils are both said to be unable to 
do any harm if turned under as much as six inches. 

At times trap crops, on which the insects feed, and by 
means of which they may be destroyed, are of great value. 
In this way the tomato, cotton, or tobacco crops, for example, 
may be protected from the worm which attacks all of them, 
and also the ears of corn, by planting a trap crop of corn. If 
this crop is planted around the field that is to be protected, 
the moths deposit their eggs on the corn silks, as they seem 
to prefer these to the other plants. Before the eggs can de- 
velop into moths, which would produce a new crop of eggs, 
the corn is cut and fed to horses, thus destroying the insects. 
By the planting of a succession of trap crops of corn the 
other crops may be largely protected. 

By learning the time at which the insect does the most 
damage and planting so as to avoid this season, often one 
can avoid, to a great extent, the injury from that insect. 
In this way, by planting early varieties of cotton which ma- 
ture a large part of their bolls before the boll-weevil becomes 
very plentiful, it has been possible to raise cotton profitably 
in spite of the weevil. 

In a similar way, by forcing growth rapidly through the 
use of fertilizers, the damage from insects is often reduced. 
In some cases kainit, lime, and nitrate of soda are thought 
to have a tendency to drive out certain insects. 

Rotation is also a very effective method of handling insect 



PLANT ENEMIES 



273 



pests. A crop that has been attacked by a certain pest 
should be followed by a different crop on which this insect 
cannol: feed. In this way the pests developed one year find 
nothing which they can eat the next year. This is a matter 
that should always be 
carefully considered, j ^®q!p 
For example, in a dis- 
trict in which corn- 
destroying insects are 
bad, one should see that 
land that has long been 
in pasture should not 
first be planted in corn, 
but in some other crop 
not related to the grasses, 
so that the insect pests 
that have accumulated 
in the grass will have 
nothing on which they 
can feed. Wire- worms, Hessian flies, wheat-plant lice, and 
many other serious pests may be largely controlled by rapid 
rotation, while the lack of rotation causes their very disas- 
trous increase. 

246. Natural Enemies of Insects. — Insects are destroyed 
in nature especially by animal and plant parasites, by other 
insects, and by birds, toads, lizards, and snakes. Man should 
make use of these in his fight with insects. This has been 
done in many remarkable cases. For example, the lady-bird 
beetle, the larval form of which destroys scale insects, was 
introduced into the orange and lemon groves of California, 
and practically exterminated a white cottony cushion-scale 




^^n 


^^^H 


IbBII^I 



Fig. 169. San Jose scale. On the left in 
position on a small twig, on the right mag- 
nified. 



274 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



that had been causing losses of about five million dollars' 
worth of fruit a year. This little beetle saved also the canta- 
loupe-growing industry of California. Birds are among the 
farmer's most useful friends. In fact it is believed that the 
destruction of so many of our birds is one of the important 




Fig. 170. Lady-bird beetle. Besides these with two spots there are 
many other kinds. One, about a quarter of an inch long with black head and 
body and orange wing covers on which are nine black spots, is very active 
against plant-lice. Another has thirteen black dots; one has pink head, thorax 
and wing covers, with ten spots on the wings. Those feeding on scales are 
smaller and black, sometimes spotted with red or orange. One should watch 
these, learn to recognize the larval forms, and not destroy themo 
Courtesy of U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



causes of the disastrous increase of insect pests. All insect- 
destroying birds should be protected most carefully by farm- 
ers, as they are worth far more as insect destroyers than is the 
little that they eat or the food that they supply when killed. 
The interesting detailed facts about the work of parasites, 
helpful insects, birds, and other animals must be left for 
study in the references and in advanced classes. 

247. The Causes of Plant Diseases. — ^The main causes of 
plant diseases, as far as they are now known, are bacteria 
and fungi. You remember that these are tiny plants that 



PLANT ENEMIES 



275 



do not as a rule manufacture their own foods, and hence 
must take foods that other plants have made. In the case 
of the disease-producing fungi or bacteria, they take their 
food from the hving plant, which they infect. A plant 
living thus on another plant is called a parasite * (par'a-sit), 




Fig. 171. Wheat rust. A, summer spores or " red-rust " stage; B, spores 
germinating and penetrating the plant; C, late spores or " black-rust " stage. 
After Ferguson and Lewis. 



and the plant from which it gets its food is called the host. 
When the spore of a destructive fungus lodges on a plant 
under conditions favorable to its development, it sends out 
threadlike growths which pierce the epidermis of the plant. 
A common mode of entrance is through the stomata. This 
filament continues developing and dividing within the plant, 
and may extend a long distance from the point of entrance. 
These growths that enter the plant are not roots of the 
fungus, but are the fungus itself. Extending thus among 
and into the cells the fungus feeds on the plant. The cells 
may break down and the plant wither as a result of this 

* Plants that live on dead plants or disintegrating plant matter are 
called saprophytes (sap'ro phlts). 



276 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



attack, or an abnormal growth may take place, produc- 
ing the galls and warts which we so often see on infected 
plants. Soon the fungus develops a crop of spores, which 
with them take the place of seeds, as you know. These 
being microscopically small, and very numerous, are easily 

blown about by the wind 
and carried by insects to 
other parts of the plant, 
and to other plants, with 
the result that soon the 
disease is scattered over 
the field. It is the enor- 
mous number of the 
spores of fungi, the ra- 
pidity with which they 
are developed, and the 
ease with which they are 
carried about that cause 
fungus diseases to play 
such havoc. In addition 
to the ordinary spores 
which spread the disease 
during the growing 
season, many fungi produce an extra-tough type of spore 
about the end of the growing period that can live through 
the long dormant season and start the trouble again the 
next year. The appearance of red rust of the wheat, for 
example, is due to the countless red spores produced dur- 
ing the growing season, while the black-rust stage is due 
to the tougher kind of spores that develop later and can 
survive till the next season. These diseases are made more 




Fig. 172. 
brown rot. 



Peach mummy caused by 



PLANT ENEMIES 



277 



• 0»M / — 

Fig. 173. The bacteria that 
cause pear blight. — After Warren. 



difficult to get rid of by the fact that many of them may 
Hve also on weeds and other vegetation besides the cul- 
tivated crops, as the apple rust lives on cedar-trees, where 
it causes the cedar-balls. From 
such places these disease-produ- 
cing fungi are carried back to the 
cultivated crops. 

Bacteria are, as you know, one- 
celled plants that multiply by di- 
viding, just as the cells do in the 
cambium layer. The disease-pro- 
ducing bacteria, when once they 
are successfully lodged on or 

within a plant, multiply with enormous rapidity and are 
blown about the field by the wind or carried by insects and 
birds from infected to sound plants. The bacteria frequently 
find a lodgement more easily when they fall on a cut or 

bruised surface, or upon blos- 
soms or very tender buds, as is 
the case with the bacterium caus- 
ing pear blight. 

248. How to Control Plant Dis- 
eases. — Nowhere is it more true 
that "an ounce of prevention is 
worth a pound of cure" than in 
the handling of plant diseases. 
When once the fungus or bacte- 
rium is within the tissue of the plant, there is no successful 
way known of reaching it. Then all that can be done is to 
prevent the further spread by spraying, and by cutting off 
and burning diseased parts, or even an entire tree or crop. 




Fig. 174. Spores of brown rot 
of peach. — After Warren. 



278 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 




While sprays will not destroy the fungi that are within the 
plant, they destroy those on the surface with which they 
come in contact. If all exposed surfaces are sprayed the new 
spores that find lodgement come in contact with the poison, 
and are killed before they can develop enough to enter the 
plant. These substances that kill fungi, but do not destroy 

the host plant, are 
called fungicides 
(fun'ji-sldz). The 
most common fun- 
gicide is Bordeaux 
(bor'do) mixture, 
the formula for 
which you will find 
farther on in this 
chapter. If fungi- 
cides are to be of 
much value, the plants must be thoroughly covered, and the 
spraying must begin before the spores left from the past 
season have begun to germinate, and before the new crop 
of spores is formed. If fungicides are applied thoroughly 
and repeated at the right times, most plant diseases that 
affect the parts exposed to the air may be controlled. 

For those diseases that affect the roots, or find entrance 
through the roots, such as cotton wilt and club root of cab- 
bage, spraying will not avail. With the underground dis- 
eases the first precaution to take is to see that the fungi or 
bacteria that may be on the seeds are destroyed before 
planting the crop, as the potato scab is destroyed by soaking 
the potato in a solution of formalin. When once the land 
is infected, then rotation should be practised, and for several 



Fig. 175. Potato infected with scab on left, sound 
potato on right. 



PLANT ENEMIES 



279 



years no crop on which that fungus or bacterium can Hve 
should be grown on this land. In this way they may usu- 
ally be destroyed. Cultural methods also are often a great 




m:m 



'^g**^- 



w^ 



Fig. 176. Ordinary cotton on the left and Dillon wilt resistant cotton on 
right, grown in adjoining fields, the soil on the right being worse infected than 
that on the left, but making no impression on the resistant cotton. 
Courtesy of U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



aid. Damp soil favors the growth of most injurious soil 
fungi, and air and sunshine hurt them. Drainage and 
thorough tillage, opening up and getting air into the soil, 
help to purify it. Occasionally the application of lime will 
be helpful. In very limited areas, such as the germinating 
bed used for tobacco, sterilization of infected soil by ''live" 
steam has been successfully employed. 



280 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

249. Disease-Resistant Varieties of Plants. — For reasons 
difficult to explain, certain plants are able to resist success- 
fully the attacks of a disease that destroys other plants of 
the same variety growing around them. By selection of the 
resistant plant and multiplication, it is possible in many 
cases to develop a resistant variety which will be immune 
to this disease. This has been done in several cases. The 
rust-proof oats, the wilt-proof varieties of cotton, and the 
Iron peas, that resist wilt, are examples. Right here is one 
of the most valuable fields of work for the thoughtful farmer 
boy and girl. Wherever an insect or disease has attacked 
a field, a careful search should be made for individual plants 
that have successfully withstood the attack. The seeds of 
these should be saved, and planted again where the plants 
will be exposed to attack. Each year the non-immune plants 
should be destroyed and seed saved only from those that are 
immune. In this way a variety may be developed that is 
wholly or practically immune. 

Insecticides and Fungicides. 

250. Formulas Vary With the Conditions. — Different con- 
ditions of climate and different plants demand different 
sprays or different strengths of the same spray, even when 
fighting the same pest. Here only general directions can be 
given. Before undertaking any large and important spray- 
ing work, the experts of the State Department of Agricul- 
ture, of the Agricultural and Mechanical College, or of the 
University should be consulted. 

The poisons usually employed as insecticides are Paris 
green and arsenate of lead, both deadly poisonous compounds 
of arsenic. The arsenate of lead is not injurious to foliage. 
The usual formula for preparing the solution is : 



PLANT ENEMIES 281 



ARSENATE OF LEAD 

Arsenate of lead 2^ lbs. 

Water 50 gallons 

Dissolve the arsenate in a small quantity of water, then 
strain into the remainder of the water. The powdered ar- 
senate gives the best results. 

Paris green often injures foliage if used alone or in too 
strong a solution. It is therefore mixed with lime and water 
in different proportions, depending upon the use to w^hich it 
is to be applied. When applied dry it is mixed ten to forty 
parts of lime to one of Paris green. For use on orchard trees 
and shrubs the usual formula is: 

PARIS GREEN 

Paris green ^\h. 

Lime 1 lb. 

Water 50 gallons 

First make a paste with the Paris green and a little water, 
then dissolve this and the lime in a small quantity of water, 
and strain into the remainder of the water. For potatoes 
and for poisoning weeds and trap crops where there is no 
danger of injury to the foliage, three times this amount of 
Paris green and lime is used to the same quantity of water. 

For poisoning grasshoppers while crossing bare places, or 
cutworms and other insects in early spring, or when the vege- 
tation has been removed from a spot, a poisoned bran mash 
is made as follows : 

POISONED BRAN MASH 

Wheat bran 25 lbs. 

White arsenic 1 lb. 

Molasses 2 quarts 



282 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

Mix the bran and arsenic, dilute the molasses with two 
quarts of warm water, pour this into the vessel containing 
the bran and arsenic, and mix thoroughly. Add water 
enough to make a stiff mash. 

The most common fungicide is copper sulphate. As this 
injures foliage if applied alone, it is generally used in a com- 
bination with lime and water, called Bordeaux viixture. For 
tough foliage, like that of the potato, six pounds of lime and 
six of copper sulphate to fifty gallons of water are used; for 
apples and pears, three or four pounds each; for tender 
foliage, two pounds of each to fifty gallons of water. 

BORDEAUX MIXTURE 

Copper sulphate 2 to 6 lbs. 

Lime , an equal quantity 

Water 50 gallons 

If strong solutions of lime and copper sulphate are put to- 
gether they form a thick, curdled mass hard to mix when more 
water is added. For that reason care must be taken in pre- 
paring Bordeaux mixture. Dissolve the sulphate and the 
lime in separate vessels in several gallons of water each, then 
either add half the remaining water to each vessel, stirring 
well, and then mix the two, or add practically all the water to 
one vessel, and pour the other solution into this, stirring well 
all the while. It is usually best to tie the copper sulphate 
in a sack and suspend it in the water, and also to put the lime 
and water together the day before the mixture is to be made. 
A combined insecticide and fungicide is often used, which 
is made by adding either arsenate of lead or Paris green to 
the Bordeaux mixture. The arsenate is generally used, two 
and one-half pounds being added to the fifty gallons of Bor- 
deaux mixture prepared as shown above. 



PLANT ENEMIES 283 

The several contact remedies are prepared as follows : 

LIME-SULPHUR SPRAY 

Lime 20 lbs. 

Sulphur 16 lbs. 

Water 50 gallons 

Mix the sulphur and a little of the water into a paste, add 
about fifteen gallons of the water boiling hot, then add the 
lime and stir thoroughly. Boil this about an hour, until 
the bright yellow color disappears and the mixture becomes 
rich amber. Then add the remainder of the water. This is 
used especially for San Jose scale and other scales. It should 
be used while the tree is dormant, as a solution strong 
enough to destroy the scale injures foliage. This also is in- 
jurious to eggs that have survived the winter, such as those 
of aphides, and pupae, such as those of the pecan-bud worm. 
It is also a good fungicide, being used often with dormant 
trees in place of Bordeaux mixture. 

For the control of brown rot in peaches and on foliage this 
mixture is used : 

SELF-BOILED LIME-SULPHUR SPRAY 

Sulplmr 8 lbs. 

Fresh stone lime 8 lbs. 

Arsenate of lead 2^ lbs. 

Water 50 gallons 

Place the lime in a barrel with enough water to cover it 
As soon as it begins to slake add the sulphur, running it 
through a sieve. Stir constantly and slowly add water. 
When well slaked and in a thin paste add the remainder of 
the water. The arsenate should be mixed into a paste and 
dissolved in a small quantity of water before being added to 
the mixture. The whole should be strained. 



284 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

For sucking insects, such as plant-lice, leaf -hoppers, young 
squash and harlequin-bugs, and nearly all other insects not 
controlled by the above-described mixtures, kerosene emul- 
sion is used with good effect. 

KEROSENE EMULSION 

Whale-oil or laundry soap 2^ lb. 

Boiling soft water 1 gallon 

Kerosene 2 gallons 

Dissolve the soap in the boiling water, take away from the 
fire, and add the kerosene. Churn or pump this mixture 
with a spray pump till it is thoroughly emulsified (e-miil'si-fid). 
It will be increased in bulk noticeably, and have a creamy 
consistency when well emulsified. For use on dormant trees 
or hard-bodied insects, dilute this with eight to ten gallons 
of water; on foliage and soft-bodied insects, use fifteen to 
twenty gallons of water. 

For scales, plant-lice, mites, and thrips the following is 
effective: 

WHALE-OIL SOAP EMULSION 

Whale-oil soap 1 lb. 

Water 6 gallons 

As a repellent on cucumber and young melon vines to the 
cucumber beetles and similar insects, hydrated lime is effec- 
tive. This should be dusted on thoroughly. 

In poultry-houses and barns, and on vegetation that is 
affected with mites or spiders, sulphur copiously applied is 
effective. A solution of one ounce to a gallon of water is 
used commonly for mites and red spiders. 

The poisons for biting insects need not be so thoroughly 
applied, but all contact poisons affect only those insects or 



PLANT ENEMIES 



285 



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286 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

fungi with which they come into direct contact, so that 
absolute thoroughness in spraying is essential to success. 
Every fungus or insect left untouched serves to start a new 
generation. 

For destroying insects injurious to stored grain and other 
farm products, carbon bisulphide, or " high life," as it is 
often called, is used in the following way: Place the bisul- 
phide in a vessel on top of the material to be treated and 
cover the pile with blankets or tarpaulin. The bisulphide 
gives off poisonous fumes that are heavier than air and pour 
down into the pile. The whole must be kept tightly inclosed 
for twenty-four hours. If a tight box can be used, the cloth 
cover may be left off. In cold weather the vessel may be 
set upon a warm brick, but no fire (not even a lighted pipe) 
should be brought near it, as the gas is exceedingly explosive. 
The fumes are poisonous, and hence should not be breathed. 
Use one pound to every thousand cubic feet of space to be 
fumigated. In fumigating grain, from one to three pounds 
per hundred bushels are used. 

In order to destroy an ant bed, pour three ounces of the 
bisulphide into a shallow pan and set beside the entrance 
to the bed. Invert a tub over the pan and the entrance to 
the bed, and pile soil around the bottom of the tub to pre- 
vent the escape of the gas to the air, and force it all down 
into the bed. Close all other entrances to the bed with 
soil and leave for twenty-four hours. This is more effec- 
tive if applied while the earth is moist and warm. 

To prevent oat smut, concealed smut of wheat, and scab 
of Irish potato, formalin is used. Grain is moistened in a 
solution of one ounce of formalin to three gallons of water 
and kept moist for two hours, after which it is dried. Care 



PLANT ENEMIES 287 

must be taken that it is not allowed to come in contact 
with smut again before being planted. Potatoes ustd for 
seed should be soaked for two hours in a solution of one 
ounce of formalin to two gallons of water in order to kill 
the scab. 

251. Caution — Danger. — As arsenic, asenate of lead, Paris 
green, carbon bisulphide, formalin, and most other insecti- 
cides and fungicides are poisons, they should be hardkd 
with care, always labelled, and never left in reach of chil= 
dren, stock, poultry, or other animals.* 

QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES 

147. Make a list of the harmful insects in your neighborhood, and col- 

lect a set of bulletins that deal with these. 

148. Collect two varieties of biting insects. Draw and describe each. 

149. Collect two varieties of sucking insects. Draw and describe each. 

150. Place the eggs of some insect in such a cage as is shown in Figure 

155, and make notes from day to day of the development. 
Watch some insect and, if possible, get eggs just as they are 
laid. Be sure to give the larva3 plenty of fresh food. 

151. Make a list of the birds of your neighborhood. Find from the 

references what each one lives on at each season of the year. 
If you have a common bird the food of which is not given in 
the references, kill a few at different times of the day and seasons 
of the year, and make a note each time of the contents of the 
craws. 

152. Find all of the kinds of helpful insects in your community. Bring 

some of each of these for the school garden. 

153. If any insect or disease has afflicted your father's farm, study this 

pest in the references, write out a practical plan for combating 
it. Show this to the teacher and, when it is approved, carry it 
out and report results. 

154. What fungus plant diseases are in your community? How should 

each be treated? 

155. What bacterial plant diseases are in your community? How 

should each be treated? 



288 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

156. What plant diseases in your community are due to infected soil? 

How could this be remedied? 

157. Find out any cases of loss from insects in your neighborhood and, 

with the help of the teacher, calculate the amount this insect 
costs your county. 

158. Find an orchard or yard affected with scale. Secure permission 

to treat it and, with the teacher's help, plan and carry out a 
treatment. 

159. Keep a lookout for some immune plant in a crop that has been 

destroyed by some insect or disease. Save seeds and see if you 
can breed a resistant variety. 



REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING 

"Diseases of Economic Plants," Stevens and Hall. 

"Insect Pests of Farm, Garden and Orchard," Sanderson and Peairs. 

"Insects and Insecticides," C. M. Weed. 

"Fungous Diseases of Plants," B. M. Duggar. 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

No. 279. "Method of Eradicating Johnson Grass." 

No. 606. "Collection and Preservation of Insects and Other Ma- 
terials for Use in the Study of Agriculture." 

No. 650. "San Jose Scale and Its Control." 

No. 657. "Chinch Bug." 

No. 660. "Weeds: How to Control Them." 

No. 662. "Apple-tree Tent Caterpillar." 

No. 670. "Field Mice as Farm and Orchard Pests." 

No. 702. "Cottontail Rabbits in Relation to Trees and Farm 
Crops." 

No. 725. "Wire Worms Destructive to Cereal and Forage Crops, 
with Control Measures." 

No. 739. "Cut Worms and Their Control in Corn and Other 
Crops." 

No. 747. "Grasshoppers and Their Control in Relation to Cereal 
and Forage Crops." 

No. 766. "The Common Cabbage Worm." 

No. 832. "Trapping Moles and Utilizing Their Skins." 



PLANT ENEMIES 289 

No. 843. "Important Pecan Insects and Their Control." 

No. 856. "Control of Diseases and Insect Enemies of the Home 

Vegetable Garden." 
No. 868. "Increasing the Potato Crop by Spraying." 
No. 872. "The Bolhvorm or Corn Ear Worm." 
No. 890. "How Insects affect the Cotton Plant and Means of 

Combatting them." 
No. 896. "Rats and Mice." 

No. 915. "How to Reduce Weevil Waste in vSouthern Corn." 
No. 925. "Cabbage Diseases." 
No. 932. "Rodent Pests on the Farm." 
No. 933. "Spraying for Control of Insects and Mites Attacking 

Citrus Trees in Florida." 
No. 945. "Eradication of Bermuda Grass." 
No. 950. "The Southern Corn Root Worm and Farm Practice 

to Control It." 
No. 1029. "Conserving Corn from Weevils in the Gulf Coast 

States." 
No. 1038. "The Striped Cucumber Beetle and Its Control." 
No. 1041. "Eelworm Disease of Wheat and Its Control." 
No. 1061. "Harlequin Cabbage Bug and Its Control." 
No. 1083. "The Hessian Fly." 
No. 1086. "Insects Affecting the Rice Crop." 
No. 1102. "The Crow in Its Relation to Agriculture." 
No, 1166. "Poison Ivy and Poison Sumach and Their Eradica- 
tion." 
No. 1 169. "Insects Injurious to Deciduous Shade Trees and Their 

Control." 
No. 1217. "The Green Bug or Spring Grain Aphis." 
No. 1220. "Insect and Fungous Enemies of the Grape." 
No. 1246. "The Peach Borer: How to Prevent or Lessen Its 

Ravages." 
No. 1260. "Stored Grain Pests." 
No. 1262. "The Boll-Weevil Problem." 

Bulletins, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, College Station, 
Texas : 
No. 124. "The Pecan-Case Bearer." 
No. 187. "Sprays and Spraying." 



290 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

Bulletin of Texas State Department of Agrioultiire: 
No. 60. "The Control of Destruotive Animals." 

The A. and M. College, of Texas, Farm and Home Hints: 
"Rat-proofing Farm Buildings." 
"Ant Control." 
"Rodent Pests." 
"Boll Weevil Control Measures Practicable in Fall and Winter, 



CHAPTER XII 
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 

252. The First Reason for Raising Stock on the Farm.— 
We have already seen that heavy crops take out of the soil 
large quantities of the food materials necessary for plant 
growth, and that unless these are put back into the soil the 
land will soon become too poor to produce a good crop. We 
have also seen that when the crop is fed to animals and the 
manure properly saved and put back into the soil, between 
eighty and ninety per cent of the valuable plant-food ma- 
terials are thus returned. On the other hand, if the crop is 
sold and carried off the farm, the farmer must constantly pur- 
chase large quantities of expensive fertilizers or his fields will 
soon not repay him for the labor of cultivating them. This 
is why the thoughtful farmer should always raise enough live- 
stock to eat practically all the foodstuffs produced on his 
farm. By feeding his crops to stock and then selling the 
stock, he retains at home in the manure nearly nine-tenths of 
the value of his crop, and sells the animals for as much as, 
often for more than, he could have sold the crop. 

253. Other Reasons for Raising Stock. — Besides this 
there are seven other advantages that in most cases come 
from raising stock on the farm instead of raising only cotton, 
grain, and other plant crops. First, the raising of some live- 
stock necessitates the growing of hay, clover, alfalfa, peas, 
pea-nuts, and other cover crops and legumes which add 

291 



292 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



BAD FARMING 





THE 


FARM 


f 


A 


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Animal (2 


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MARKE 



GOOD FARMING 



THE 


FARM 




/;:^^fneralY\N. 


1 




J, 


PlantY 






' 



o 

SEWER 
WASTE 



MARKET 



Fig. 177. The upper figure illus- 
trates poor farm management: the 
minerals in the soil are converted _ 
into plant crops and four-fifths of sewer 
the products are carried off the farm waste 
to the market, while only one-fifth 
is fed to stock and thus left on the farm in the form 
of manure. The lower figure illustrates good farm 
management: the same minerals in the soil are con- 
verted into plant crops, but only one-tenth of these 
. is taken off the farm to market, the other nine-tenths 
are fed to stock. The stock leave on the farm in their 
manure seven-tenths of the minerals that were taken 
from the soil and carry away only two-tenths when 
they are sold in the market. 



O 

SEWER 
WASTE 



humus, and in 
some cases nitro- 
gen, to the soiL 
This diversifying 
the crops also 
makes farming 
more certain, as 
then no one fail- 
ure due to unfa- 
vorable season or 
insect pest can 
affect all the crops 
of any one year. 
Second, this di- 
versification and 
the stock-feeding 
distribute the la- 
bor of the farm 
more evenly 
through the year, 
instead of causing 
great rushes at 
special seasons. A 
good part of the 
work of feeding 
stock for market 
comes in late fall 
and winter when 
the crops are out 
of the way. Third, 
there are always 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 293 

remnants of crops and a great deal of grass left in fields that 
can be gathered at no expense by animals and converted into 
salable meat. Fourth, a considerable part of the expense of 
harvesting and of hauling out fertilizer is saved with many 
crops by turning into the field the stock, which do their 
own harvesting and drop the manure in the field. Fifth, 
when several thousand pounds of crops are fed to stock, 
there are only a few animals to be driven to market instead 
of the several thousand pounds of produce to be hauled. 
This saves time and teams. Sixth, in most cases, except 
where markets are very near or the soil and climate are es- 
pecially adapted to some particular crop, more money can 
be made by devoting a considerable part of the farm to 
raising stock and the crops that feed stock economically than 
can be made by raising all market crops such as cotton. 
Seventh, the raising of stock makes farming more interesting 
and attractive to both old and young, and broadens the 
thinking of the farmer. It is therefore perfectly plain that 
except under very special circumstances every farmer should 
raise at least enough live-stock to consume all the food crops 
that a well-planned rotation, including legumes and winter 
cover crops, would demand on his farm. 

254. Texas Especially Adapted to Stock-Raising. — Texas 
is especially adapted to stock-raising. The mild winters and 
long growing season make it possible to have green food in the 
field all the year, and to allow the stock to exercise and to 
gather their own feed in large part nearly all the time. Such 
expensive barns and long winter feeding as are demanded in 
the North are not required, nor are the dangers of diseases 
caused by close housing so great. Furthermore, such a large 
part of the food eaten does not have to be used by the animal 



294 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

in keeping warm. With her vast acres of pasture land and 
mild climate, Texas should develop her stock-raising rapidly, 
now that practical methods of handling the cattle tick and 
other animal pests and diseases have been learned. 

255. The Loss From Raising Scrub Stock. — The cattle 
tick, through interfering with the bringing of finer pure- 
bred stock into the Southwest, has cost and is costing this 
section tens of millions of dollars a year. Texas in 1910 had 
7,131,000 beef cattle. This was about twice as many as any 
other State had, Iowa, the State with the next largest number, 
having only 3,611,000. The Texas cattle, however, were val- 
ued at only $15.30 her head, while those in Illinois and Wyo- 
ming were valued at $26.40, and those in Montana at $27.40. 
If Texas beef cattle were raised to the same quality as those 
of Montana, $86,000,000 would be added to the wealth of the 
State. In 1910 Texas had 1,137,000 dairy cattle, valued at 
only $25.50 apiece, while New Jersey dairy cattle were val- 
ued at $47.50 a head. If Texas dairy cattle were raised to 
the same quality as those of New Jersey, over $25,000,000 
would be added to the State's wealth. It takes nearly 
as much labor and feed to raise a scrub as it does to raise 
a pure-bred or high-grade animal. The raising of scrub 
stock is therefore very wasteful and unintelligent. In for- 
mer years, when there were millions of acres of cheap land, 
it was possible to make a profit from scrub stock turned out 
to graze with very little oversight. Now, with higher- 
priced land and the country rapidly being broken up into 
small farms and ranches, the ranchman and farmer can no 
longer afford to waste time and food on scrub stock. When 
Herefords and Shorthorns will weigh two thousand pounds, 
it is poor economy to raise scrubs that weigh one thousand 



A...A 



s^^Mi?^^^^S*^^P^^: 



— .^ 






^HJ 




Fig. 178. Above, ari inferior feeder; in the centre, a choice feeder; below^ 
a fat steer of the correct type. 

Courtesy of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. 



296 FUNDAMENTALS OF FAKMING 

or less. When Jerseys or Holsteins (Horstinz) will produce 
from five hundred to over a thousand pounds of butter a 
year, is it sensible to feed milk cows that produce only a 
hundred and fifty pounds per year? 

256. How to Improve the Quality of Stock. — While it is 
not practicable for all farmers at once to buy and raise only 
pure-bred stock, it is practicable to grade rapidly a herd 
at small expense by breeding only from pure-bred males. 
As you know, the parents of a scrub do not belong to any 
particular breed, but are a mixture of many inferior types, 
whereas both parents of a pure-bred belong to the same 
breed of selected stock. The result of this is that when a 
pure-bred male is crossed on a scrub female, the offspring, 
which is called a grade, is more likely to resemble the 
pure-bred male parent than the scrub female. For ex- 
ample, if a pure-bred Hereford bull is used, nearly all the 
calves will show the fine Hereford qualities. None of the 
males of these half-bloods, as the offspring of a full blood and 
a scrub are called, should be allowed to breed. The female 
half-bloods should be crossed again with a pure-bred and 
thus secure a three-quarter pure grade. These similarly 
being crossed with a full-blooded bull will produce calves 
that are seven-eighths pure, or high grade. For practical 
beef and dairy purposes, such high grades are nearly as 
good as pure-breds, but they would not bring high prices 
for breeding purposes. Grade bulls should not be used 
for breeding, as with a mixed ancestry the calves from them 
would not be apt to come true. As long as the grade fe- 
males are always bred to a pure-bred bull, however, the 
calves are very apt to possess the qualities of the good 
stock. 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 297 

257. What Must Be Known to Get Highest Profit From 
Stock-Raising. — In order to get the greatest profit from his 
stock-raising the farmer must know two things : First, what 
kinds of animals and animal products — meat, milk, butter, 
wool, and eggs — the market demands and pays best for; sec- 
ond, how to produce these at the least cost. In order to 
produce at the least expense animals that will bring the high- 
est prices, three things must be learned. These are: First, 
live-stock judging; second, live-stock breeding; third, live- 
stock feeding. Let us now study each of these. 

258. Live-stock Judging. — Live-stock judging is the basis 
of all success in stock-raising. If one does not know what are 
desirable points in an animal he will not know how much to 
pay for animals that he buys, nor what to charge for those 
that he sells, nor will he know which animals to select and 
breed from in his herd. One horse sells for 1500, while an- 
other that looks very much like it to the untrained observer 
brings only $150. One bull sells for $50, while another that 
does not look very different to the average boy sells for $500. 
Let us take up the several farm animals in turn and find out 
what points are important and what relative value should be 
given to each different quality. 

CATTLE 

259. Classes of Cattle. — Cattle are divided into three 
classes: heef cattle, or those raised for beef; dairy cattle, or 
those raised for their milk and butter; dual-yuryose cattle, or 
those raised both for beef and for milk and butter. Each of 
these classes has its special points which have definite values 
in estimating the quality of the animal judged. These can be 
learned thoroughly only by study of actual cattle with the 



298 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 




Fig. 179. Points of the beef animal: 1, muzzle; 2, face; 3, eyes; 4, fore- 
head; 5, ears; 6, poll; 7, jaw; 8, neck; 9, shoulder vein; 10, shoulder; 
11, dewlap; 12, chest; 13, brisket; 14, breast; 15, arm; 16, knee; 17, shin; 
18, hoof; 19, fore-flank; 20, crops; 21, ribs; 22, back; 23, loin; 24, rump; 
25, hips, or hooks; 26, hind-flank; 27, purse, or cod; 28, tail-head; 29, pin 
bones; 30, thigh; 31, twists; 32, hocks; 33, shank; 34, tail. 

Courtesy of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. 



aid of a trained judge, but with the aid of pictures and the 
following descriptions any boy or girl may make a good start 
in learning to judge cattle. 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 299 

260. Beef Cattle.— Beef cattle are divided into: (1) ''fat 
steers," meaning those ready for the butcher; (2) ''feeders," 
meaning those that are ready to be fattened for the butcher; 
and (3) "breeding cattle," meaning those used for breeding 
purposes. 

The fat steer for which the butcher pays the highest price 
is one that will dress out the highest per cent of salable 
meat and that carries the maximum amount of this meat 
in the regions from which the most valuable cuts come. In 
order to meet these requirements the fat steer must have a 
broad, deep, low-set, smooth, compact form with straight top 
and under lines. He must show especially high development 
in the ribs, loin, rump, and thighs, which are the regions of 
the high-priced cuts. He must possess good quality, as in- 
dicated by fine, soft hair, loose, pliable skin of medium thick- 
ness, even, firm, mellow flesh, and clean, medium-sized, dense 
bone. He must be in good condition, as indicated by a deep, 
even covering of firm flesh, especially in the region of choice 
cuts. The scrub steer with swayed back, high flanks, nar- 
row, shallow body, long legs, probably large paunch, coarse 
bone, thick hide, coarse hair, and thin covering of flesh not 
only dresses out a low per cent of salable meat, but too large 
a proportion of this meat is located in the regions of the low- 
priced cuts. Figures 178, 179, 180 will make this descrip- 
tion clear. 

The score-card on the next page presents the points in 
detail to be considered in judging fat cattle and shows the 
relative value of those points. The score-card is of great aid 
to the beginner in stock-judging, in famiharizing him with the 
ideal type, in enabling him to distinguish clearly and fix in 
memory the points to be observed, and to judge in a system- 



300 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



SCORE-CARD 

From Circular No. 29, Purdue University 
BEEP CATTLE 



FAT 



SCALE OP POINTS 



GENERAL APPEARANCE— 40 per cent 

1. Weight, estimated lbs. Actual lbs. 

according to age 

2. Form, straight top and underline; deep, broad, 

low set, stylish, smooth, compact, symmetrical 

3. Quality, fine, soft hair; loose, pliable skin of 

medium thickness; dense, clean, medium- 
sized bone 

4. Condition, deep, even covering of firm, mellow 

flesh; free from patches, ties, lumps, and 
rolls ; full cod and flank indicating finish .... 

HEAD AND NECK— 7 per cent 

5. Muzzle, broad; mouth large; nostrils large and 

open 

6. Eyes, large, clear, placid 

7. Face, short; jaw strong 

8. Forehead, broad, full 

9. Ears, medium size; fine texture 

10. Neck, short, thick, blending smoothly with 

shoulder; throat clean, with light dewlap 

FORE-QUARTERS — 9 per cent 

11. Shoulder vein, full 

12. Shoulders, smoothly covered, compact, snug, 

neat 

13. Brisket, trim, neat; breast full 

14. Legs, wide apart, straight, short; arm full; 

shank fine 

BODY — 30 per cent 

15. Chest, full, deep, wide; girth large; crops full. . 

16. Ribs, long, arched, thickly and smoothly 

fleshed 

17. Back, broad, straight, thickly and smoothly 

fleshed 

18. Loin, thick, broad 

19. Flank, full, even with underline 

HIND-QUARTERS— 14 per cent 

20. Hips, smooth 

21. Rump, long, wide, level; tail-head smooth; pin 

bones wide apart, not prominent 

22. Thighs, deep, fuH 

23. Twist, deep, plump 

24. Legs, wide apart, straight, short; shanks fine, 

smooth 



Total . 



points 
deficient 



STAND- 
ARD 



12 



stu- 
dent's 
score 



cor- 
rected 



100 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 



301 



atic way. As soon as these purposes are accomplished, further 
use of the card is not necessary. The student should then be 
able to judge and criticise an animal without referring to the 




Fig. 180. Wholesale cuts on a steer: 1, round; 2, loin; 3, flank; 4, rib; 
5, plate; 6, chuck; 7, shank. 

Courtesy of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. 



card. After becoming proficient in judging a single animal, 
comparative judgments of two or more animals maybe made. 
The feeder steer is the one not yet fat but ready to be 
fattened for the market. The ideal feeder is one that will 
make the most economical gains in the feed lot and will when 
fat meet the ideal of the fat steer. The difference between 
the ideal feeder and the ideal fat steer is a matter of condition, 
or flesh covering. The most important points to be con- 
sidered in feeders are the following. The body should be 
deep and wide, the top and bottom lines straight, legs short, 
and general appearance smooth and compact. The depth 
and thickness are not, of course, as great in the feeder as in the 



302 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

fat steer, but the more pronounced they are in the feeder the 
greater they are Ukely to be in the fat steer. A wide back, 
well-sprung ribs, wide, thick loin, level, long, wide rump, giv- 
ing squareness to the hind-quarters, thickly fleshed thighs, 
and deep twist are demanded to make sure of large valuable 
cuts when the animal is fat. The skin should be loose, pliable, 
and of medium thickness; the hair soft and glossy; the bone 
clean, dense, and of medium size. Medium-sized bone is pre- 
ferred to small bone, because it has been found that animals 
possessing medium-sized bone have better constitutions and 
when fed give larger return than do those with small bones. 
The loose, pliable skin and the glossy hair indicate good 
digestion, which is essential to economical gains in the feed 
lot. While not fat, the feeder must possess a large amount 
of flesh or lean muscular tissue, otherwise it will not dress 
out a large per cent of good quality of meat when fat. The 
feeder should have a strong constitution, as is indicated by 
deep, wide chest, large nostrils, large muzzle and mouth, 
bright, clear, quiet eyes, short, broad head, well-arched deep 
ribs and low flanks, giving large capacity for food. The 
butcher does not care for large head or large paunch, but in 
the feeder they are desirable, as they indicate ability to make 
good use of food and make rapid gains in the feed lot. 

Breeding cattle when thin should represent ideal feeders and 
when fat ideal fat cattle; but in addition to this they should 
possess qualities which indicate that they will breed regularly 
and that the offspring will resemble their parents. No mat- 
ter how good the animals may be as individual specimens, 
they will not do as breeders unless they can reproduce their 
kind with regularity. The following points should be looked 
for in breeders. 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 303 

1. The animal should be true to his type; that is, the Here- 
ford should have the characteristics of the Hereford and the 
Jersey of the Jersey. The distinguishing features of each 
type have been fixed in it by long years of carefully breeding 
only animals of this type. Those that are good representa- 
tives of the type are therefore more apt to be able to transmit 
this type to their offspring than would a specimen that had 
varied from the type. An animal capable of doing this is 
spoken of as prepotent. 

2. The animal should possess the characteristics of the sex 
to which it belongs. Such animals are more apt to be prepo- 
tent. The bull should show the following masculine char- 
acteristics: bold expression in eyes; full forehead; thick neck, 
surmounted by heavy, well-developed crest; heavy, though 
not coarse, shoulders, giving him a strong, vigorous, burly ap- 
pearance. The female should show the following feminine 
characteristics: mild expression in eyes, refinement of head 
and horns, neck slender and shoulders light as compared 
with the bull, more width and prominence of hips than the 
bull, and a generally gentle appearance. 

3. The constitution must be strong, as only animals hav- 
ing such can stand the strain of producing offspring regularly 
and at the same time transmit to the offspring their strength 
and vigor. The signs of a strong constitution you have just 
learned in studying the feeders. 

261. Breeds of Beef Cattle.— There are eight breeds of 
beef cattle recognized in the United States: Shorthorn, 
Hereford, Aberdeen- Angus, Galloway, Polled Durham, Polled 
Hereford, Sussex, and West Highland. The first four are 
considered the principal breeds. Only the first three have 
gained prominence in Texas. 



304 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



The Shorthorn. This breed originated in England, proba- 
bly from the old Teeswater and Holderness stock, in the 
counties of York, Durham, and Northumberland. Short- 
horns are sometimes improperly called Durhams. As early 
as 1780 the special selection and breeding were begun which 




Fig. 181. A Shorthorn bull. 
Courtesy of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. 

produced this remarkable beef type, possessing easy-feeding 
qualities, early maturity, and thick flesh of good quality. 
The breed has long been prominent and steadily improved. 
In size the Shorthorn ranks first, bulls at maturity weighing 
two thousand to twenty-two hundred pounds. Many weigh 
as high as twenty-five hundred pounds. Cows weigh four- 
teen hundred to sixteen hundred pounds, some as high as 
two thousand pounds. The color may be pure red, pure 
white, red and white spotted, or roan, which is a mixture 
of red and white. The breed is sometimes called the '^reds, 
whites, and roans." The horn, which is a well-marked 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 305 

characteristic of the breed, is . usually short and small, 
preferably curved forward, with the tips bending inward 
and upward. The breed is noted for wide back, strong loin, 
and square, well-developed hind-quarters. It is criticised 
because of length of legs and lack of heart girth, as shown 
by insufficient fulness back of shoulders, in the crops and 
fore-flanks. As milk producers they rank first among the 
beef breeds. 

The Shorthorn is especially adapted to the farm, but not 
so well adapted to range conditions, particularly where ex- 
posed to severe winters, as the Hereford. Shorthorn bulls 
are used on the ranches, however, by many cattlemen be- 
cause of the marked improvement produced in the size of the 
stock. 

The Hereford is a native of Hereford County, England, the 
breed having originated early in the eighteenth century in 
efforts to produce a breed better suited to the production of 
fine beef by grazing. The Hereford is shorter of leg and some- 
what more compact in appearance than the Shorthorn, but 
weighs practically as much. The color is remarkably uni- 
form; the face, breast, top of neck, legs usually from slightly 
below the knee and hock down, the belly, and switch of tail 
are all white. The rest of the body is red. The breed is 
often called the "white face." The head is shorter and 
broader than that of the Shorthorn, the horns longer and 
keener toward the tips. The horns are white or waxy yel- 
low, and spring forward and usually down with a graceful 
curve. The Hereford is especially noted for its excellent 
constitution, thick middle, beautiful front, and early ma- 
turity. The most common defect in the form is light hind- 
quarters, owing to a drooping, peaked rump and poorly 



306 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



developed thighs. The American breeders especially have 
in recent years greatly improved this breed in this respect. 
Hereford cows rank very low as milk producers. 

Many Herefords have been imported and, because of the 




Fi 



1S2. Druid of Point Comfort, grand champion Hereford bull 1908-1912. 
Courtesy of Lee Brothers. 



excellent grazing qualities and adaptation to ranches, have 
been distributed rapidly over the western ranges. Hereford 
bulls are of immense value in grading up common herds be- 
cause of the transmission of their fine beef qualities and ability 
to stand hard conditions. On account of hardiness and early 
maturity, Hereford steers stand in front rank as feeders. 

Aberdeen- Angus. This breed of hornless cattle originated 
in and around the county of Aberdeen, in Scotland, taking its 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 307 

name from the county and a near-by locality. While some- 
thing had been done before, the real work of improving this 
breed began about 1815. iVberdeen-Angus cattle are not as 
large as Shorthorns and Herefords, but are more cylindrical 





f 


* 






. . V ^ 


■ 


l^^n 


m^^^- 


. 


i^j^^j^P^^^^WPi^^^ 


i 



Fig. 183. Aberdeen-Angus bull. 
Courtesy of R. F. Hildebrand. 

and compact in shape and are remarkably heavy for their 
size. Bulls weigh two thousand to twenty-two hundred 
pounds, cows fourteen hundred to fifteen hundred pounds, 
both sexes frequently passing these marks. The breed is 
noted for its smoothness, high percentage of dressed beef, 
and the superior quality of the meat. The standard color 
is black; though occasionally solid reds appear. The poll, 
or top of the head, is a well-marked characteristic. It 
should be clearly defined and prominent, and there should 



308 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

be no traces of rudimentary * (ru di meii'ta ry) horns. The 
cows produce more milk than Herefords, but less than Short- 
horns. 

This breed was first brought to America in 1873, and has 
become quite widely spread and popular considering the 
short time it has been here. It has gained much favor in 
the upper Mississippi Valley and in the Western and South- 
western States. The bulls are excellent for grading up a 
herd, and the steers make excellent feeders. The absence 
of horns makes it possible to feed them in close quarters 
without danger of their injuring each other. While good 
on the range the Aberdeen-Angus is hardly the equal of 
the Hereford in this respect. 

The Galloway originated also in Scotland, in the ancient 
province of that name. Little is known of its origin, but its 
improvement was begun early in the eighteenth century. On 
account of the cold, damp climate and the mountainous 
nature of the country the cattle were obliged to have very 
robust constitutions, which is a noted and important point 
in favor of the Galloway. It is the smallest of the principal 
beef breeds, usually very short of leg and long of body. The 
head is hornless, but, unlike the Aberdeen-Angus, the poll is 
rather flat. The hair, instead of being short and smooth as 
that of the Aberdeen-Angus, is long and shaggy. The breed 
is often called the "shaggy coat.'' The hides often bring 
high prices for use in making rugs, robes, and overcoats. 
The color is black, with reddish or brownish tint frequently 
occurring in the black. The breed is criticised for lack of 
spring and fulness of rib, thin covering of loin, and slow 

* A rudimentary horn is one that makes a beginning but never de- 
velops. 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 



309 



response to generous feeding. On these points it is now 
being rapidly improved. 

Galloways were introduced into the United States and Can- 
ada early in the nineteenth century, but have gained more 
favor in Canada than in the United States, where they are not 







Fig. 184. GaUoway buU. 
Courtesy of R. F. Hildebrand. 



nearly so popular as the three leading breeds. Its strong 
constitution, long, thick hair, and ability to find food make it 
well adapted to the cold Northwest and to the mountains. 
It is not well adapted to the warm South. There are a few 
Galloways in Texas, principally in the west, where Galloway 
bulls are used to some extent in grading up the herds. 

Polled Durham cattle had their origin in the United States. 
About 1870 pure-bred Shorthorn bulls were bred to hornless 



310 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

COWS and the offspring that inherited the hornlessness of the 
mother but the other quaUties of the Shorthorn were se- 
lected, and by continuous breeding and selection the polled 
breed of Shorthorns, called Polled Durham, was produced. 
Those bred in this way are called ''single standard." Another 
breed of polled cattle was developed by selecting a few pure- 
bred Shorthorn bulls and cows that varied from the normal 
in having no horns. These were bred to each other and the 
polled feature fixed in the offspring. Polled Durhams that 
originated in this way are called "double standard." 

A Polled Hereford breed of cattle has been developed re- 
cently also in the United States by breeding to each other 
Herefords that did not have horns. 

The Sussex breed originated in England and the West 
Highland breed in the highlands of Scotland. The first is 
solid red and nearly as large as the Hereford, and is possibly 
related to this breed. The latter is a low-set, shaggy moun- 
tain type. Neither has any prominence in America. 

262. Dairy Cattle. — A good dairy cow will return in milk 
and butter for a given amount of foodstuff a larger amount 
of human food than will the hog, sheep, chicken, or steer. 
This fact coupled with the ever-present demand for the prod- 
ucts of the dairy make dairying, when properly conducted, 
a most profitable business. No kind of live-stock will as a 
rule yield a larger return from an acre of land than dairy cat- 
tle. In States that are thickly populated, and in which land 
is expensive, dairying is usually one of the chief occupations. 

263. Texas is Especially Suited to Dairying. — In many 
of the more thickly populated sections of Texas dairying has 
made considerable advance in recent years, but the State is 
still wofully behind in this important field. As a rule farm- 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 



311 



ers keep a very poor grade of cows and do not handle the 
milk and butter in a scientific way. The result is that not 
half the butter is made that should be, and so large a part of 
that made is of such poor quality that when Wisconsin butter 









^_j^ 


p 


If- 


^ ^' 'SBBp"/ 


^m. 


*^p 


L 


4 ' '''. ^9 


t /^^^^-' . 


i 


•W^ 















Fig. 185. Points of the dairy cow: 1, muzzle; 2, face; 3, forehead; 4, eye; 
5, ear; 6, jaw; 7, neck; 8, withers; 9, shoulder; 10, foreleg; 11, crops; 
12, chest; 13, back; 14, ribs; 15, barrel; 16, loin; 17, hips; 18, rump; 19, pin 
bones; 20, tail; 21, escutcheon; 22, thigh; 23. udder; 24, teats; 25, milk 
veins; 26, milk wells; 27, hind leg. 

Courtesy of A. O. Auten. 



is quoted in the market at thirty cents a pound, Texas 
country butter is quoted at fifteen cents. Here, where the 
cows can stay in the open all the year and can every day find 
fresh, green, succulent food, which is especially important for 
dairy cows, it is a discredit to our intelligence and industry to 
continue longer to buy our butter from States that have the 
ground covered with snow for three months of the year. We 



312 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

cannot hope to compete with other States as long as we use 
cows that produce one hundred and fifty or two hundred 
pounds of butter a year, while they use cows that produce 
five hundred pounds, or even eleven hundred and twenty-six 
pounds, as the Jersey, Jacoba Irene, did, or twelve hundred 
and forty-seven pounds, as the Holstein, Colantha Fourth's 
Johanna, did. Our farmers and farmer boys and girls must 
learn about the judging, breeding, and feeding of dairy cat- 
tle, and about the production of milk and butter, before 
the State can take the high position in dairying that its 
natural advantages entitle it to hold. Let us begin the 
study now. 

264. Judging the Dairy Cow. — A dairy cow may be 
looked upon as a factory which takes in raw material in the 
shape of food and makes it into milk and butter fat. If this 
were all that had to be considered, the best dairy cow would 
be the one that yielded the largest amount of milk and butter 
fat from the smallest amount of food. By measuring the 
food given and the milk produced and testing the per cent 
of fat with the Babcock test * each day, one could keep rec- 
ords that would make it possible to judge the quality of 
the cow accurately. But at times dairy cows must be judged 
when they are not giving milk, and when there are no records 
to go by. Furthermore, there are other qualities besides 
capacity for milk production that must be considered, such 

*This is a test which was originated by Professor Babcock, of the 
University of Wisconsin, for finding out the percentage of butter fat in 
milk. A little sulphuric acid is added to a bottle of milk, which 
causes the fat to be separated from the rest of the milk. The bottle 
is then rotated rapidly in a machine in such manner as to bring the 
cream to the top of the bottle. A scale is marked along the top part 
of the bottle by which the per cent of cream present can be seen at 
once. 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 313 

as capacity to produce regularly offspring that will inherit 
the fine qualities of the parent, and capacity to maintain 
vigor for a number of years. For these reasons it is necessary 
to learn to judge the qualities of a dairy cow by her physical 
make-up in a manner similar to that by which the qualities 
of beef cattle are judged. 

265. How Milk is Produced in the Cow. — In the beef 
type of cow the food consumed is in part turned into flesh 
and stored within the animal's body, but in the dairy type the 
food is turned into milk which is constantly being taken away 
from the body. We should therefore expect the two types 
to be very different in appearance. But before we can know 
what the differences are and intelligently determine what is 
the best type for dairy purposes, we must know more about 
the means by which milk is produced in the cow. The parts 
most concerned in the production of milk are the digestive 
organs, the blood, the lungs, the heart, the udder, and the 
nervous system. 

The digestive system must be strong enough to enable the 
cow to consume and digest a large quantity of food in order 
to produce a great quantity of milk. She should therefore 
show a large middle, or '^ barrel," as it is called. 

The bloody lungs, and heart. After the food has been di- 
gested or changed into a condition to be utilized by the ani- 
mal it passes through the walls of the intestines into the 
blood. The material from which milk is to be formed thus 
becomes a part of the blood, which now goes through a large 
vein to the right side of the heart. From here it goes to the 
lungs to be purified by the air that is breathed in. It then 
returns to the heart, this time to the left side, and from 
there is pumped through the arteries to the various portions 



314 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



of the body. A part of it passes through a large artery under 
the backbone to the hind-quarters. Here this artery sends 
out a large branch, which in turn throws out several smaller 
branches that distribute the blood throu^^h all the regions 







Fig. 186. The blood supply of the udder. Arteries (in white) lead from 
the heart to the udder, veins (in black) lead from the udder to the heart. 
From Circular No. 29, Purdue University 



of the udder. After the blood has passed through the udder 
it appears on the outside of it in what are called the milk 
wins. These pass along the belly for some distance in front 
of the udder, enter the body walls through milk wells, and 
carry the blood back to the heart. 

It is thus seen that the heart, lungs, arteries, and veins are 
of great importance in the manufacture of milk. The part 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 315 

played by the heart and lungs shows that it is very important 
for the cow to have a deep, wide, full chest, indicating that 
these organs are well developed and that she possesses a 
strong constitution. The size of the milk veins and milk 
wells is an indication of the amount of blood that passes 
through the udder to supply material for the manufacture 
of milk. On this account it is important that they be large. 

The udder. It is in the udder that the process of making 
milk from the material supplied by the blood is carried on. 
The udder serves also as a reservoir for the milk after it has 
been made until withdrawn by the process of milking. It 
is especially important that the udder have a large capacity, 
and to this end it should be attached high behind and carried 
well forward. The quarters should be even and free from 
fleshiness. When empty it should appear to consist of folds 
of soft, pliable, elastic skin. 

The nervous system, represented by the brain and the spinal 
cord with its branches, controls the action of the various or- 
gans of the body. In the dairy cow it is very important that 
the nervous system be strong and well developed in order 
that the organs concerned in the manufacture of milk may 
carry on their work most effectively. The cow with a ner- 
vous system of this kind is spoken of as having a nervous 
temperament. This does not mean that she is irritable and 
excitable, as the term often implies, but that she possesses a 
strong set of nerves that has the various organs of the body 
under good control. The nervous temperament in the dairy 
cow is indicated by a lean yet vigorous condition, showing 
that the feed she consumes is being used chiefly in the pro- 
duction of milk and not in the laying on of flesh. An animal 
of this temperament is active and wide awake. The tempera- 



316 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



merit of the beef animal differs from that of the dairy animal, 
being what is called a lymphatic or lazy temperament, which 
is conducive to the laying on of flesh. Dairy cows that show 




Fig. 187. Colantha Fourth's Johanna, the Holstein-Friesian cow that gave 
27,432^ pounds of milk in one year. From this milk 1,247.8 pounds of butter 
were produced. Note the typical wedge (B A C) shape of the dairy cow. 
Courtesy of the University of Wisconsin. 



a beefy tendency are not utilizing their food for milk produc- 
tion as they should. 

266. The Dairy Type. — Having learned the parts of the 
dairy cow that are chiefly involved in milk production, we 
are now in a position to understand the dairy type. We can 
see that the digestive organs and the udder, on account of the 
important work they perform, should be highly developed. 
We can see also that the dairy cow should be lean in condi- 
tion. A lean head, a rather long, thin neck, lean, thin 
withers, thinly fleshed back, ribs, loin, and rump, and thin, 
long thighs characterize the nervous temperament. The 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 



317 



good dairy cow must also be wide of loin, hips, and rump. 
The high development of barrel and udder, the width of the 
loin, hips, and rump, together with the thin neck and lean 
condition throughout, give the 
dairy cow a wedge-shaped 
form. Three wedges may be 
seen, as indicated in Figures 
187 and 188. This peculiar 
type which is so closely associ- 
ated with high milk produc- 
tion has been intensified in 
each breed of dairy cattle by 
many years of careful breed- 
ing. The points in detail to 
be considered in judging dairy 
cows are given in the score- 
card on the next page. 

267. Breed Type.— In ad- 
dition to judging the dairy 
cow by the points indicated on 
the score-card as a milk pro- 
ducer, she should be judged 
also as a breeder. The points 

to consider here are the same as those given for the breeder 
type when discussing beef cattle. 

268. The Dairy Bull. — The dairy bull may be judged by 
the records of his daughters as milk producers, but this 
method can be applied only to old bulls. The more common 
method is to judge by his agreement with a certain type 
proved to be valuable, and by the records of his ancestors. 
A bull from good parents, grandparents, and great-grand- 




FiG. 188. Note the wedges B A C 
and DAE, characteristic of the dairy- 
type. Courtesy of the Agricultural 
and Mechanical College of Texas. 



318 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



SCORE-CARD 

From "Judging Live Stock," by J. A. Craig 
DAIRY CATTLE 



COW 



SCALE OF POINTS 



GENERAL APPEARANCE 

Form, inclined to be wedge-shaped 

Quality, hair fine, soft; sliin mellow, loose, me- 
dium thickness; secretion yellow; bone clean, 
fine 

Temperament, nervous, indicated by lean ap- 
pearance when in milk 

HEAD AND NECK 

Muzzle, clean cut; mouth large; nostrils large. . 

Eyes, large, bright, full, mild 

Face, Ifean, long, quiet expression 

Forehead, broad 

Ears, medium size, yellow inside, fine texture. . 

Horns, fine texture, waxy 

Neck, fine, medium length, throat clean, ll:;lit 
dewlap 

FORE-QUARTERS 

Withers, lean, thin 

Shoulders, light, oblique 

Legs, straight, short; shank fine 

30DY 

Chest, deep, low, girth large with full fore-flank 
Barrel, ribs broad, long, wide apart; large 

stomach 

Back, lean, straight, open-jointed 

Loin, broad 

Navel, large 

HIND-QUARTERS 

Hips, far apart, level 

Rump, long, wide 

Pin bones, or Thurls, high, wide apart 

Tail, long, slim; fine hair in switch 

Thighs, thin, long 

Escutcheon, spreading over thighs, extending 
high and wide; large thigh ovals 

Udder, long, attached high and full behind, ex- 
tending far in front and full, flexible; quarters 
even and free from fleshiness 

Teats, large, evenly placed 

Mammary veins, large, long, tortuous, branched 
with double extension; large and numerous 
milk wells 

Legs, straight; shank fine 

Total 



stand- 
ard 


points 
deficient 


stu- 
dent's 
score 


cor- 
rected 


6 

6 
6 

1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

1 

1 
2 
2 

10 

10 
2 
2 
2 

2 
2 

1 
1 
4 

2 

20 
5 

5 
2 






















































































































100 







ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 319 

parents is more likely to be a good breeder than one the an- 
cestors of which are not of such merit. In judging the dairy 
bull the following points are especially important: 
1. He should be typical of the breed he represents. 




Fig. IS'J. Fouiitaine's Chieflain, cliampiuii Jersey bull. 
Courtesy of R. F. Hildebrand. 

2. He should show in general the spare, angular form 
characteristic of the dairy cow. 

3. He should show distinctly the nervous temperament, as 
indicated by an active, wide-awake appearance and lean con- 
dition. 

4. He should possess good quality, as indicated by dense, 
clean bone, soft hair, and loose, pliable skin of medium thick- 
ness. 

5. He should show a strong masculine character, as indi- 
cated by bold expression of eyes, burly head, strong horns, 



320 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

well-crested neck, and comparatively heavy though not coarse 
shoulders. The front of the dairy bull is necessarily much 
heavier than that of the dairy cow, but he should not show 
the same relative width of hips. 

6. He should possess a strong constitution, as indicated by 
a deep, wide chest, large nostrils, bright, clear eyes, and a 
general appearance of health and vigor. 

7. He should possess a large, capacious barrel, indicating 
plenty of room for food, for it is important that he be able to 
stamp this characteristic on his offspring. 

8. He should possess a strong back, long, level rump and 
light, thin thighs, and should be cut up high in the twist. 
Thick, beefy thighs and deep, full twist are objectionable. 

9. The rudimentary teats should be of good size and evenly 
placed, as they indicate to some extent the size and position 
of the teats in the female offspring. 

269. Breeds of Dairy Cattle. — The breeds of dairy cattle 
mentioned in order of popularity in the United States are: 
the Jersey, the Holstein-Friesian (Horstin-Fre'zhan), the 
Guernsey (Gurn'zy), the Ayrshire (Ar'sher), the Broivn 
Siviss, the Dutch Belted, the French Canadian, and the Kerry. 

The Jersey came from a little island of that name in the 
English Channel, and is probably descended from two French 
types of cattle that had been taken to the island. As early 
as 1763 the interest in breeding a fine dairy type was strong 
enough to get a law passed forbidding the bringing to the 
island any cattle from France except for immediate slaughter. 
Soon similiar laws were made against cattle from other coun- 
tries. Since 1833 the most rigorous selection has been car- 
ried on, with the result that the Jersey excels all other breeds 
in quality of milk and in beauty and refinement. In size 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 321 

the Jersey ranks from medium, to small. An average bull 
weighs about 1,300 pounds and an average cow about 850 
pounds. There is, however, wide variation in weights of 
both bulls and cows. The color also varies considerably, a 
fawn-like color predominating. It may be a yellowish, red- 




FiG. 190. Jersey cow. 
Courtesy'jof A. O. Auten. 

/dish, grayish, brownish, or silvery fawn. Some are de- 
scribed as orange or lemon fawn, and others as squirrel gray 
or mulberry black. White markings often occur, but are not 
in favor. The Jersey is especially noted as a producer of 
rich milk, that is milk that contains a high percentage of 
butter fat. It is also noted for the comparatively large size 
of the fat globules in the milk, this being a great advantage 
on account of causing the cream to rise and separate easily. 



322 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

The Jersey cow, Jacoba Irene, No. 146443, A. J. C. C, 
holds the record of her breed for butter production in an 
official test. She produced in one year 17,253 pounds of 
milk, from which was made 1,126 pounds 6 ounces of butter. 

The importation of Jersey cattle to the United States be- 
gan early in the nineteenth century, but importations did not 
become frequent until 1850. The Jersey is the most popular 
breed in the United States, and is now found in every State. 
Jersey cattle are numerous in Texas, where they have been in 
strong favor for many years, almost to the exclusion of other 
breeds. They are more widely distributed over the world 
than any other dairy breed. 

Holstein-Friesian. The native home of this breed is Hol- 
land. Little is known about its origin, but it is claimed that 
cattle of the Holstein-Friesian type have been kept by the 
people of Holland for the production of milk, butter, and 
cheese for over a thousand years. The size of the breed is 
greater than that of any other dairy breed. The average 
weight of mature cows is from twelve hundred and fifty 
pounds to fourteen hundred, and of mature bulls from nine- 
teen hundred to two thousand pounds. It is not uncommon 
for weights of both cows and bulls to exceed these figures. 
The color is black and white spotted, sometimes black pre- 
dominating and sometimes the reverse. Black on the legs is 
considered objectionable. The Holstein-Friesian cow is fa- 
mous for the large quantity of milk she produces. In this re- 
spect she is far ahead of all other breeds. The cow Colantha 
Fourth's Johanna, No. 48577, A. H. F. A., holds the world's 
record for quantity of milk in an official test. She pro- 
duced in one year 27,432 i pounds of milk, from which were 
made 1,247.8 pounds of butter. The milk of the Holstein- 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 



323 



Friesian is not rich in butter fat, but a large quantity of but- 
ter is generally produced on account of the large yield of 
milk. 

Holstein-Friesian cattle were probably first brought to the 
United States by the early Dutch settlers of New York. 




Fig. 191. Guernsey cow. 
Courtesy of R. F. Hildebrand. 



Since about the middle of the nineteenth century many im- 
portations have been made. The breed has become well 
distributed, though it has not gained the popularity of the 
Jersey. It would be well if a larger number of cattle of this 
breed were owned in Texas, for as yet the breed has not been 
given the attention in this State which its merit demands. 

The Guernsey. This breed, the native home of which is the 
islands of Guernsey and Alderney, in the English Channel, 



324 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

near the island of Jersey, has high merit. Several herds of 
Guernsey cattle are owned in the United States, chiefly in 
New England, New York, New Jersey, and Wisconsin. The 
breed, however, has not gained the prominence to which its 
merit entitles it. There are few Guernseys in Texas, though 
there is no reason why they should not do well here. The 
size of the Guernsey is generally larger than that of the Jer- 
sey, the average weight of mature cows being about a thou- 
sand and fifty pounds, and of mature bulls about fifteen hun- 
dred pounds. In color animals of this breed may be either 
yellowish, brownish, or reddish fawn, with white marking 
frequently occurring on body or legs. 

The Ayrshire. The native home of this breed is in the 
county of Ayr, in southwestern Scotland. In size the breed 
ranks as medium, the average weight for mature cows and 
bulls being about the same as stated for the Guernsey breed. 
The color is white, with red or brown markings. The breed 
ranks high in yield of milk, which, however, is only fair in 
quality. Ayrshire cattle have been exported from Scotland 
to many different countries. In North America they are 
found chiefly in Quebec and Ontario, Canada, and in the New 
England and Eastern States of this country. 

The Brown Swiss is a large rather beefy breed of dairy 
cattle whose native home is in Switzerland. On account of 
its beefy tendency it is classed by some as a dual-purpose 
animal. 

The Dutch Belted breed had its origin in Holland, where 
it has been chiefly developed by the nobility of that country. 
The color is peculiar, being black, with a wide belt of white 
around the body between the shoulders and the hips. From 
the dairy stand-point the breed does not rank high. 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 



325 



The French Canadian breed of cattle originated in the 
province of Quebec, Canada. It is supposed that the foun- 
dation stock of the breed was imported from France by the 
early settlers before 1665. The breed has been kept pure 




Fig. 192. Ayrshire cow. 
Courtesy of R. F. Hildebrand. 



for over a hundred years. It is noted for its vigorous, robust 
constitution. The color is generally black, though a brown 
brindle sometimes occurs. Though French Canadian cows 
rank well as milk producers, the breed is not distributed to 
any extent outside of Quebec. 

The Kerry breed of cattle originated in western Ireland. 
It is a small breed, black in color and very hardy. The cows 
rank well as milk producers and the quality of the milk is 



326 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

SCORE-CARD 

From "Judging Live Stock," by J. A. Craig 
RED POLLED CATTLE 



COW 



SCALE OP POINTS 



OBJECTIONS 

Scurs, or any evidence whatever of a horny growth 
on the head. Any white spots on body above 
lower line or brush of tail. 

COLOR — Any shade of red. The switch of tail and 
udder may be white, with some wiiite rvmning 
forward to the navel. Nose of a clear flesh color. 
Interior of ears should be of a yellowish, waxy 
color 

Objections — An 'extreme dark or an extreme 
light red is not desirable. A cloudy nose or 
one with dark spots. 

HEAD — Of medium length, wide between the eyes, 
sloping gradually from above eyes to poll. The 
poU well defined and prominent, with a sharp dip 
behind it in centre of head. Ears of medium 
size and well carried. Eyes prominent; face 
well dished between the eyes. Muzzle wide, 
with large nostrils 

Objections — A rounding or flat appearance of 
the poll. Head too long and narrow. 

NECK — Of medium length, clean cut, and straight 
from head to top of shoulder, with inclination to 
arch when fattened, and may show folds of 
loose skin underneath when in milking form .... 

SHOULDER — Of medium thickness and smoothly 
laid, coming up level with line of back 

Objections — Shoulder too prominent, giving the 
appearance of weakness in heart girth. Shoul- 
der protruding above line of back. 

CHEST — Broad and deep, insiiring constitution. 
Brisket prominent and coming well forward .... 

BACK AND RIBS — Back medium long, straight 
and level from withers to the setting on of tail ; 
moderately wide, with spring of ribs starting 
from the backbone, giving a rounding appear- 
ance, with ribs flat and fairly wide apart 

Objections — Front ribs too straight, causing de- 
pression back of shoulders. Drop in back or 
loin below the top line. 



POINTS 

deficient 



STAND- 
ARD 



stu- 
dent's 

SCORE 



cor- 
rected 



10 



14 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 



327 



SCORE-CARD 
(Continued) 
RED POLLED CATTLE 



COW 



SCALE OF POINTS 



HIPS — Wide, rounding over the hooks, and well 
covered 

QUARTERS— Of good length, full, rounding, and 
level; thighs wide, roomy, and not too meaty. . . 

Objections — Prominent hooks, sunken quar- 
ters. 

TAIL — Tail head strong and setting well forward, 
long and tapering to a full switch 

LEGS — Short, straight, squarely placed, medium 
bone 

Objections — Hocks crooked, legs placed too close 
together. 

FORE-UDDER — Full and flexible, reaching well 
forward, extending down level with hind-udder. 

HIND-UDDER— Full and well up behind 

TEATS — Well placed, wide apart, and of reason- 
ably good size 

Objections — Lack of development, especially in 
forward udder. Udder too deep, "bottle- 
shaped," and teats too close together. Teats 
vmevenly placed and either too large or too 
small. 

MILK VEINS— Of medium size, full, flexible, ex- 
tending well forward, well retained within the 
body ; milk wells of medium size 

HIDE — Loose, mellow, flexible, inclined to thick- 
ness, with a good, full coat of soft hair 

Objections — Thin, papery skin or wiry hair. 

CONDITION— Healthy; moderate to liberal flesh 
evenly laid on ; glossy coat ; animal presented in 
good bloom 

Total 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION— Cow medium wedge 
form, low set, top and bottom lines straight ex- 
cept at flank, weight 1,300 lbs. to 1,500 lbs. when 
mature and finished. 



STAND- 
ARD 



10 



100 



POINTS 
DEFICIENT 



stu- 
dent's 

SCORE 



COR- 
RECTED 



328 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

good. The breed is not generally found outside its native 
home. 

270. Dual-Purpose Cattle. — Dual-purpose cattle have been 
bred for both beef and milk production. From what you 
have learned of the beef and dairy types it should be clear 
to you that both beef production and milk production 
cannot attain the highest degree of development in the same 
animal. We therefore find the dual-purpose type first 
class neither for beef nor for milk. Cattle of this type, how- 
ever, meet the demand of many farmers for animals that 
will be superior to the dairy breeds for beef and superior 
to the beef breeds for milk. The two breeds of dual-purpose 
cattle of the most importance are the Red Polled and the 
Devon. 

Red Polled. In the early part of the eighteenth century 
there existed a small, thin-fleshed, red-brindled, or dun-col- 
ored polled type of cattle in Suffolk, England, noted for its 
milk-producing qualities. About the same time in Norfolk 
there existed a type of cattle described as blood-red in color, 
with white or mottled face, having horns and possessing a 
strong tendency to fatten at an early age. These cattle were 
poor milkers, but of very good beef qualities. The red polled 
breed originated in a crossing of these two types. Careful 
selection was practised and the result was a polled dual- 
purpose breed, solid red in color. Mature males weigh 
from eighteen hundred to twenty-two hundred pounds and 
mature cows from eleven hundred to sixteen hundred 
pounds. 

Red polled cattle were not imported into the United States 
to any extent until after 1873. They are now very well dis- 
tributed throughout the Mississippi Valley States. They 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 



329 



seem well adapted to Texas conditions and several promi- 
nent herds are owned in this State. 

Devon. The native home of this breed is in the counties 
of Devon and Somerset, England. The origin of the breed 
is obscure, but it is thought that it is directly descended from 




Fig. 193. Red polled cow. 
Courtesy of R. F. Hildebrand. 



the native wild cattle of Great Britain and that it is one of 
the oldest of the British breeds. The size of the Devon is 
quite variable. As a milk producer the Devon holds only a 
medium rank. Animals of this breed were probably among 
the first pure-bred cattle to be imported to the United 
States. Though the breed is now fairly well scattered over 
the United States, it has never gained much popularity. 
Very few Devons are found in Texas. 



330 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

The Cattle Tick 

271. Cause of Tick Fever. — One of the most expensive 
diseases the South has ever known is the cattle "tick fever," 
as this disease is now called. For many years the losses 
through this fever from death, quarantine, and other effects 
have been estimated at over $40,000,000 a year. The scien- 
tists of our Agricultural and Mechanical College and of the 
United States Department of Agriculture have now dis- 
covered the cause of this fever and devised methods of com- 
pletely eradicating it. The fever was found to be caused by 
parasites which are taken in by ticks when biting infected 
cows. The parasites are then carried to other animals that 
are afterward bitten by these ticks, and are even transmitted 
to the eggs of the tick, and in this way to the next generation. 

272. Valuable Results of the Discovery. — When it was 
found that ticks caused the fever, and that they could be 
removed from cattle by oil and other dips, the rigid quaran- 
tine against Southern cattle was modified, and a consider- 
able part of this expensive handicap was removed. 

Perhaps the worst injury from the tick arose out of the 
fact that about four-fifths of the fine-blooded cattle imported 
into the Southwest to breed up our scrub herds were given 
the fever. As they were less resistant to the fever than the 
native cattle, most of them died. This prevented the rapid 
improvement of our stock. The scientists next discovered 
that by injecting some of the blood of a native cow directly 
into a well one, the healthy animal would be given the fever. 
The fever properly transmitted in this way is not especially 
dangerous, as is shown by the fact that only five per 
cent of the animals infected die, whereas eighty per cent 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 



331 



die from the fever caused directly by tick bite. The fever 
caused by direct inoculation, as this method is called, makes 
the animal immune to the disease thereafter in all forms. 
Now that this has been learned it is possible to import and 







. * 








^^ 


^ 




?» 


fm^ 


BB^K^^mdO^' 




r 


i 


r 



Fig. 194. Cattle tick depositing eggs. 
Courtesy of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



inoculate the finest young bulls and heifers and breed up 
our low-grade herds economically. This great handicap 
being removed, the South can now come rapidly to the front 
in the raising of fine-blooded cattle. 

273. Exterminating Ticks.— By careful study of the habits 
and life cycle of the ticks, a method of entirely ridding the 
pastures of them has been devised, and the ticks have been 
cleared out of a large number of States and will soon be 



332 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

wiped out of the United States. Investigators found that 
the grown female tick, when filled with blood, drops from 
the cow and lays about three thousand eggs. In warm 
weather tiny ticks soon hatch out and climb upon vegeta- 
tion, where they are rubbed off by passing stock. As ticks 
can live only on blood, if no animal of the right kind is 
found, they finally starve to death. In summer they can 
live without food for about three months and in winter much 
longer. 

The method of exterminating ticks is simple. The cattle 
are brought in from the pastures about once in two weeks 
and dipped in a solution that kills the ticks. In this way 
the only young ticks that can live to reproduce, namely, 
those upon the cattle, are killed before they have got their 
fill of blood and have dropped off and laid a new lot of eggs. 
This method does not necessarily kill all the ticks in a pas- 
ture, because there are other varieties of ticks that live on 
other animals. It does destroy the particular variety of 
tick that lives on cattle and transmits tick fever. In this 
way it clears the pasture of infected, fever-producing ticks. 



QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES 

160. Make a list of all the reasons for and against raising stock on your 

farm. 
16 L How many beef cattle are on your farm ? What is their value per 

head? How could their value be increased in a practical and 

economical manner? 
162. How many dairy cattle are on your farm? How much milk and 

butter per year does each cow produce ? How much more would 

these pay per year if each one produced one-half as much as the 

Jersey Irene ? 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE 333 

163. Make what you consider a practical plan for live-stock raising on 

your farm. Discuss this with the teacher and then at home. 

164. How many of each of the following could be raised on your farm 

without interfering with the crops now grown there: 1, cattle; 
2, horses; 3, sheep or goats; 4, hogs; 5, chickens and other fowls? 

165. How many breeds of cattle are there in your community and what 

are they ? 

166. Find what kinds of pure-bred cattle are in your neighborhood and, 

together with the teacher and remainder of the class, make a 
visit, inspect, and score each Variety. 

167. Find and score one good specimen of each of these types: good 

feeder, poor feeder, fat steer, good breeder, poor breeder. 
If teacher and pupils can go together to a county or State fair and 
practise judging it will be very helpful. 



REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING 

*'A Study of Farm Animals," C. S. Plumb. 

''Judging Live Stock," John A. Craig. 

''Types and Breeds of Domestic Animals," C. vS. Plumb. 

"Our Domestic Animals," C. W. Burkett. 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

No. 206. "Milk Fever and Its Treatment." 

No. 350. "The Dehorning of Cattle." 

No. 380. "The Loco-Weed Disease." 

No. 439. "Anthrax, with Special Reference to Its Suppression." 

No. 569. "Texas or Tick Fever." 

No. 612. "Breeds of Beef Cattle." 

No. 614. "A Corn-Belt Farming System Which Saves Harvest 

Labor by Hogging Down Crops." 
No. 666. "Foot and Mouth Disease." 

No. 720. "Prevention of Losses by Stock from Poisonous Plants." 
No. 790. "Contagious Abortion in Cattle." 
No. 857. "Screwworms and Other Maggots Affecting Cattle." 
No. 949. "Dehorning and Castration of Cattle." 
No. 1008. "Saving Farm Labor by Harvesting with Live Stock." 
No. 1057. "Cattle-fever Tick," 



334 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

No. 1068. "Judging Beef Cattle." 

No. 1069. "Tuberculosis in Live Stock." 

No. 1073. "Growing Beef on the Farm." 

No. 1135. "The Beef Calf: Its Growth and Development." 

No. 1167. "Essentials of Animal Breeding." 

No. 1218. "Beef Production in the Corn Belt." 

Bureau of Animal Industry Circulars, U. S. Department of Agriculture : 
No. 31. "Blackleg: Its Nature, Cause, and Prevention." 
No. 68. "Diseases of the Stomach and Bowels of Cattle." 
No. 89. "The Preparation of Emulsions of Crude Petroleum." 

(For cattle parasites.) 
No. 97. "How to Get Rid of Cattle Ticks." 
No. 98. "Some Unusual Host Relations of Texas-Fever Tick." 
No. 141. "Foot and Mouth Disease." 
No. 175. "The Control of Bovine Tuberculosis." 

Bureau of Plant Industry Circulars, U. S. Department of Agriculture: 
No. 15. "Some Practical Suggestions for the Suppression of 

Bovine Tuberculosis." 
No. 25. "The Ox Warble." 
No. 456. "Cropping System for Stock Farm." 



CHAPTER XIII 
THE CARE OF MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 

274. What is Necessary in Dairying. — The first necessity 
in the economical production of milk, butter, and cheese is 
well-selected dairy cows. After securing cows of the right 
type one must then learn to handle the milk and butter 
properly and to feed economically before he can secure the 
largest return from his herd. Let us see what good milk and 
butter are and how they are produced. Later we shall study 
feeding. 

275! What Milk Is. — We have seen that in the good dairy 
cow a large supply of blood is carried to the udder, where 
there are organs 

which can utilize the j? _<?«°?^•9 o «L .Pj'>*S>0 • Jp 
materials brought 
by the blood in man- 
ufacturing milk. As 
the milk is made 
from the materials 

in the blood, the Fig. 196. On the left, pure freshly drawn milk 
i. PI .,, as it looks under the microscope; on the right, 

quahty oi the milk impure miik. 
depends to a certain 

extent upon what food materials are in the blood, as well as 
upon the kind of milk-secreting organs there are in the udder. 
This is why milk from cows that are being fed on clover 
and peas has a different flavor from that produced by cows 
that are fed on cotton-seed meal. When cows have been 

335 




336 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

eating onions, for example, the flavor of the milk is directly 
affected. 

The composition of milk varies with different breeds, and 
even with different individuals of the same breed. As a 

,./;!:yV::;«. rule Holstein milk, 
^:mV,'.V.'. for example, has 
^1^^- x<l:'\''-'-'' about three and five- 
nm^^^-^^^T^""^ tenths per cent fat, 

.^Ji^^'^^^^^'' PROGENYOFA while Jersey milk has 
o<: SINGLE GERM IN ^^^ut five and four- 

^''^'^'Ljf TWELVE HOURS *^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^' ^^^ 

Co^^^J^^ some Holstein cow 

^^^^^^^^2^ may have a much 

higher percentage of 

fat than the average 

Fig. 197. , ^ 

and some Jersey 
much lower than the average. The ingredients of milk are 
usually in about the following proportions: 

Water 87.0 per cent 

Fat 4.0 " '' 

Protein 3.2 " " 

Sugar 5.1 

Ash 7 " " 

The sweet taste of fresh milk is due to the milk-sugar in 
it. Milk also contains bacteria which work on this sugar 
and produce an acid that gives the taste to sour milk. 

276. Why Milk Sours and How to Prevent It.— When 
milk is kept at a temperatue of 75 to 100 degrees the bacteria 
in it multiply so rapidly that in ten to twelve hours the milk 
is sour. It is not practicable or desirable to keep these lactic- 
acid bacteria, as these are called, entirely out of milk, but if, 
as soon as it is drawn, the milk is cooled to a temperature 



THE CARE OF MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



337 




of about 40 degrees and is kept, cool the bacteria multiply 
very slowly and the milk will remain sweet much longer. 
Even at a temperature of 55 or 60 degrees the bacteria 
multiply slowly. Milk should therefore always be cooled 
as soon as drawn. Furthermore, every precaution should 
be taken to prevent bacteria from getting into it. At 
milking-time the cows and stables must be clean and free 
from dust, and before 
milking the cows must 
be brushed off and the 
udders washed and 
wiped clean. The hands 
of the person milking 
should be carefully 
washed before he be- 
gins to milk, and when- 
ever soiled afterward. 
The milk-pail should have a top that will admit a minimum 
of dust (see Figure 198). All milk vessels, no matter how 
well washed in warm or cold water, still have tiny particles 
of dried milk left in the cracks and angles. These tiny 
specks contain thousands of bacteria which will rapidly mul- 
tiply in the next sweet milk that is put into the vessel and 
sour it. For this reason all milk vessels should be washed 
very carefully and sunned and should then be scalded before 
being used in order to kill all bacteria on them. If these 
precautions are taken, milk should keep sweet without ice 
for a day or two in even the hottest weather, provided it is 
cooled with spring or well water immediately after it is drawn 
and kept cool with running water or by the evaporation of 
water around it. 



Fig. 198. Into which milk-pail will most 
dust and germs fall? 



338 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



277. Danger in Milk. — There are not only lactic-acid bac- 
teria in milk, but many other bacteria are liable to get into it 
from the air, the vessels, and the persons handling it. Once 
in the milk, these bacteria thrive and multiply with wonder- 
ful rapidity. Fortunately many of them are harmless, but 




Fig. 199. 



A sanitary and conveniently arranged dairy barn. 
Courtesy of " Farm and Ranch." 



others are very dangerous. Typhoid fever, scarlet fever, 
tuberculosis, and many other serious diseases may be carried 
in milk. For this reason no one with a germ disease should 
work around a dairy or handle milk. The vessels and milk 
should always be protected from dust and especially from 
flies. The vessels should be washed only in water that is 
known to be pure. Two hundred and thirty-six people were 
given typhoid fever by one dairy at which the milk-cans 
were washed in an infected stream. If milk is not kept 



THE CARE OF MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



339 



scrupulously clean it is very dangerous. If it is not kept 
cool the bacteria in it multiply so rapidly that it is soon 
unfit for use. When properly cared for it is one of the best 
and most wholesome of foods, except to an occasional per- 
son who cannot digest it well. 

278. Cream. — The cream which rises to the top when milk 
stands for several hours is composed mainly of butter fat. 




Fig. 200. Cross-section of a model barn, showing arrangement of stalls, 
feed-troughs, etc. 



This fat, which is composed of round globules so small that 
it takes six thousand of them side by side to measure an inch, 
is lighter than the rest of the milk, and hence it rises to the 
top when milk is allowed to stand. Cream may be separated 
immediately from the milk by a mechanical separator, in 
which the vessel of milk is rotated six thousand or more 
revolutions per minute. This rapid revolution tends to 
throw the milk off from the centre of the vessel, as mud or 
water is thrown from a revolving wheel. The heavier part 
of the milk is thrown harder and hence is driven to the outer 
part of the vessel and the light cream is thus squeezed to 
the centre. The milk escapes through an opening at the 
outer edge of the vessel and the cream through one at the 
centre. In this way the immediate separation is brought 
about. Milk can be more perfectly separated in this way 



340 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

than by allowing it to stand until the cream rises and then 
skimming. 

279. Butter. — Butter is nearly pure fat, there being in 
ordinary butter about eighty-two per cent fat, fourteen per 




Fig. 201. Famous model dairy bam, Wisconsin State fair grounds. 
Courtesy of " Farm and Ranch." 



cent water, two and five-tenths per cent salt, and one and 
five-tenths per cent casein (ka'se in) and milk-sugar. It is 
produced by stirring or agitating the cream until the tiny 
globules of butter fat gather into granules, or small lumps. 
The cream may be agitated while still sweet, or may be first 
ripened or soured. The product of the first is called sweet- 
cream butter, the latter produces the ordinary or sour-cream 
butter. The peculiar flavor of butter which is so highly 



THE CARE OF MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 341 

prized is given to it by the lactic-acid bacteria. If the milk 
is kept too cold, these will not develop rapidly and the milk 
will sour so slowly that in the mean time other bacteria in 
the milk which stand cold better will develop sufficiently 
to give an unpleasant flavor to the butter and buttermilk. 
On the other hand, if the milk is kept too warm the lactic- 
acid bacteria will develop too rapidly, the butter will be 
soft and of poor quality and the buttermilk too sour. Sixty 
to seventy degrees is a good temperature at which to 
ripen cream. Fifty degrees is the temperature used in some 
dairies. 

A good temperature for churning is sixty degrees. When 
cotton-seed meal is being fed to the cows, about five degrees 
higher is better. It is a waste of time to churn cream that 
is at too low a temperature. If the temperature is too high 
the butter will be soft and mixed with the curds of the milk. 
A dairy thermometer costs very little and should always be 
used. The best churns are those that revolve. They should 
not be filled more than one-third to one-half full when churn- 
ing. As soon as the grains of butter become as large as 
grains of wheat, draw off the buttermilk and add cold water 
to harden the butter. Then take the butter up, wash thor- 
oughly, work it, and add fine dairy salt. Usually butter is 
worked twice, but car^. must be used, as too much working 
spoils the grain of the butter. When butter comes slowly it 
may be because the cream is not sour enough, not warm 
enough, or the churn is too full. The remedies for the last 
two are plain. For the first a small amount of buttermilk 
may be added to the cream to hasten souring. In cold 
weather it is often desirable to add a little buttermilk to 
cream to hasten souring. Butter, like milk, must be handled 



342 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

with the greatest cleanHness, and should not be placed near 
anything having a strong odor, as it absorbs odors easily. 

280. Cheese. — Cheese is also made from milk. It con- 
sists principally of the protein part of the milk called casein, 
together with varying amounts of fat and water. In order 
to make the American cheese, such as is usually sold in the 
grocery stores, the casein is first precipitated by rennet, 
which is put into the milk for that purpose. When the 
casein and- fat are precipitated the whey is drawn off and the 
fat and casein heated, drained, salted, compressed, and cured 
or ripened. The ripening requires from several weeks to 
several months, and usually demands cold storage and expert 
handUng. Bacteria also play an important part in the mak- 
ing of cheese and giving its flavor, but this must be left for 
later study, as must the making of all the other kinds of 
cheese except cottage-cheese. 

Cottage-Cheese, or cream cheese, is very easy to make, and 
may be prepared in any home. The milk is allowed to 
clabber, then heated slightly to hasten the separation of the 
curd and whey. It is then hung in a cheese-cloth bag or put 
into metal moulds which are made for the purpose and left 
till the whey is all drained out and the curd firm. It may be 
pressed into moulds and kept for several days if kept at a low 
temperature. When eaten it may be flavored with salt or 
served with sweet cream and sugar. 

281. Sterilizing and Pasteurizing Milk. — When milk is 
heated to the boihng point, 212 degrees, and boiled for a few 
minutes the germs in it are killed, so that it will keep sweet 
for a long time if protected from fresh infection. Such milk 
is said to be sterilized (ster'il Izd). Unfortunately, milk 
when boiled loses some of its food value. For that and other 



THE CARE OF MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



343 



reasons milk is often heated to 140 degrees only and kept at 
this temperature for twenty minutes. This is called pas- 
teurizing (pas'tur iz ing) . If cooled promptly and kept 
cool, pasteurized milk will keep 
sweet for several days and will not 
have the cooked taste and other 
undesirable qualities of boiled milk. 
Pasteurizing kills bacteria, but does 
not kill spores, hence the milk is 
not sterile, and if it is allowed to 
get warm again the spores will de- 
velop. If milk must be used about 
the cleanliness of which there is 

any doubt, it should be pasteurized. Pasteurization does 
not take the place of cleanliness at all, but where it is 
impossible to keep milk cool, pasteurization will help to 
delay the souring. 




Fig. 202. A small, inex- 
pensive Babcock mili-tester. 



QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES 



168. Study a dairy cow on your farm, locating all the points given in 

the text and figures. 

169. Milk one quart of milk, using every precaution mentioned in the 

text, both in the milking and in the cleaning of the vessels. 
Place this beside a quart milked in the ordinary way and placed 
in vessels cleaned in the ordinary manner. Test both after ten, 
twelve, fifteen, eighteen, twenty-four hours to see which keeps 
best and has the best flavor. 

170. Take three quarts of freshly drawn milk. Cool one at once to 

the temperature of spring or well water and keep it at that tem- 
perature. Wait an hour and then treat the second quart in the 
same way. Leave the third quart exposed to the summer heat 
all the time. Test these after six, ten, fifteen, and twenty-four 
hours and note the acidity and flavor of each. 



344 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

171. Allow several gallons of fresh milk to clabber, churn one-third as 

soon as it is clabber, churn another third twelve hours later, 
and the other third twenty-four hours later. Note the effect 
in each case on the butter and on the buttermilk. 

172. Take several gallons of sour milk, churn one- third of it at a tem- 

perature of fifty degrees, one-third at sixty, and one-third at 
seventy-five degrees. Note the effect of the different tempera- 
tures on the butter and buttermilk. 

173. Take three quarts of fresh milk. Sterilize one, pasteurize another, 

do nothing to the third. Then place all three under the same 
conditions and taste each after twelve, eighteen, twenty-four, 
and forty-eight hours. 

174. If your school has a Babcock tester, bring samples of milk from 

each cow and test for per cent of fat. Make test of milk drawn 
at the beginning of the milking and of that drawn when the 
udder is nearly empty. 



REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING 

"Productive Dairying," R. M. Washburn. 

"Manual of Milk Products," Stocking. 

"The Story of Milk," J. D. Frederikson. 

"Milk and Its Products," H. H. Wing. 

"Modern Methods of Testing Milk and Milk Products," Van Slyke. 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

No. 206. "Milk Fever and Its Treatment." 

No. 602. "Clean Milk: Production and Handling." 

No. 742. "The Feeding of Dairy Cows." 

No. 748. "A Simple Steam Sterilizer for Farm Dairy Utensils." 

No. 850. "How to Make Cottage Cheese on the Farm." 

No. 876. "Making Butter on the Farm." 

No. 893. "Breeds of Dairy Cattle." 

No. 930. "Marketing Butter and Cheese by Parcels-Post." 

No. 960. "Neufchatel and Cream-Cheese Manufacturing and 

Use." 
No. 976. "Cooling Milk and Cream on the Farm." 



THE CARE OF MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 345 

No. 1019. "Straining Milk." 

No. 1207. "Milk and Its Uses in the Home." 

No. 1214. "Farm Dairy Houses." 

Texas Experiment Station: 

Circular No. 15. "A Milk House for Texas." 

The A. and M. College of Texas Extension Service Bulletins: 
No. C-7. "Feeding the Dairy Cow." 
No. 59. "Dairy Barn Plans." 



CHAPTER XIV 
HORSES 

282. The Modern Horse Not a Native of America.— The 

horse has probably been associated with man longer than any 
other domestic animi^^l. A prehistoric horse evidently ex- 
isted in North America at one time, but the modern horse 
had its beginning here with the early settlement of the coun- 
try by Europeans. 

283. Importance of Horse-Raising in Texas. — Practically 
the whole State of Texas is well adapted to successful horse- 
raising, the western portion being especially so on account 
of its limestone soil and dry atmosphere. The former is ex- 
cellent for the growth of bone and feet of good texture and 
the latter for the development of strong lungs, which are 
essential to stamina and endurance. The number of horses 
in Texas in January, 1910, was given as 1,369,000, and the 
average price per head as $73. The number of horses in 
Illinois at the same time was 1,655,000, with an average price 
of $124. Illinois ranks first in the Union in point of numbers, 
but in average value per head. New Jersey ranks first, with 
$134. Texas ranks third in point of numbers, but in average 
value per head this State ranks very low. This is because 
not enough attention has been given to the improvement of 
horses through careful selection and breeding. Every farmer 
who raises horses should strive to produce animals of a defi- 
nite recognized market type. He should decide on the type 

346 



HORSES 



347 



he wishes to procfuce and then work constantly toward that 
end. Only sound, pure-bred stallion~«, should be used. It 
is just as cheap to raise a good horse that will fill a definite 
market class as an inferior one. 




Fia. 203. Points of the horse: 1, mouth; 2, nostril; 3, chin; 4, nose; 5, 
face; 6, forehead; 7, ear; 8, eye ; 9, lower jaw; 10, throatlatch; 11, windpipe; 
12, crest; 13, withers; 14, shoulders; 15, breast; 16, arm; 17, elbow; 18, fore- 
arm; 19, knee; 20, cannon; 21, fetlock-joint; 22, pastern; 23, foot; 24, fore- 
flank; 25, heart girth; 26, back; 27, loin; 28, hip; 29, croup; 30, tail; 31, but- 
tocks; 32, coupling; 33, belly; 34, rear-flank; 35, thigh; 36, stifle; 37, quarters; 
38, gaskins, or lower thigh; 39, hock. 

Courtesy of R. F. Hildebrand. 



284. Judging Horses. — In judging horses it is usual to 
consider them in two general classes, namely, heavy or 
draft horses and light horses. Light horses are of three types: 
road, or light-harness horses; coach, or heavy-harness horses; 
saddle-horses. 



348 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

Road-Horses. Horses of this class are used to draw light 
vehicles at a good rate of speed, which they must be able to 
maintain for a considerable distance without undue fatigue. 
Their chief characteristics are speed and stamina. The 
form is rather angular, the chest is very deep, and the loin 
and hind-quarters, where the propelling power and chief 
strength of the horse reside, are very muscular. Long mus- 
cles because of their elasticity, and long bones because they 
afford good leverage, are most favorable to speed. Good 
quality is indicated by clean bone, soft, pliable skin, silky 
hair. Clean-cut features throughout are characteristic of 
the good roadster and are of great importance from the fact 
that they are closely associated with both endurance and 
durabihty. In action the feet should be moved in a straight 
line and carried well forward rather than very high. The 
stride should be long, quick, and regular. InteUigence and 
courage are very important in the roadster and are generally 
possessed in a high degree in horses of this class. 

Coach-Horses. Horses of this class are used chiefly for 
drawing heavy vehicles, such as carriages and coaches, at a 
moderate rate of speed and in good style. Symmetry of 
form and high, stylish action are their most marked quali- 
ties. Coach-horses range in weight from eleven hundred 
to fourteen hundred pounds, and in height from fifteen 
hands to sixteen hands one inch. The form of the coach- 
horse is more compact and more smoothly turned than that 
of the roadster. It is characterized by fulness and sym- 
metry throughout, owing to the plumpness of the muscle 
over all parts. A rather small, clean-cut head neatly at- 
tached to a well-arched neck is characteristic of the best type 
of coach-horse and contributes much toward style. Such 



HORSES 



349 



horses also possess quality in a high degree. This is very 
important, not only on account of its association with dura- 
bihty, but because it adds greatly to the appearance of the 
animals. The coach-horse in action is a "high stepper." 







^ 








PC 


f« 


4" 1^ 


i 


ig"wg^^''^'^^'^JB 


W,7-^ 




m 


km |.^^..— .r.M 


f^^-i 


H^r -^i.^-.-^ 




.::^; 






b^ 




i. 



Fig. 204. American trotting stallion. 
Courtesy of ''The Horse Review." 



The action should be high, snappy, smooth, and graceful, the 
length of stride found in the roadster being sacrificed for high 
carriage of knees and hocks. 

Saddle-Horses. The name of this class indicates the pur- 
pose for which horses belonging to it are used. Their weight 
ranges from nine hundred to twelve hundred pounds, and 
their height from fourteen hands three inches to sixteen 
hands. The typical saddle-horse with its smoothness and 
symmetry of form resembles somewhat the coach type, but 



350 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



SCORE-CARD 

From " Judging Live Stock," by J. A. Craig 

LIGHT HORSES MARKET 



SCALE OF POINTS 



GENERAL APPEARANCE 

Form, symmetrical, smooth, stylish 

Quality, bone clean, firm, and indicating suf- 
ficient substance; tendons defined; hair and 
skin fine 

Tempekament, active, kind disposition 

HEAD AND NECK 

Head, lean, straight 

Muzzle, fine, nostrils large; lips thin, even; 

teeth sound 

Eyes, full, bright, clear, large 

Forehead, broad, full 

Ears, medium size, pointed; well carried and 

not far apart 

Neck, muscled; crest high; throatlatch fuie; 

windpipe large 

FORE-QUARTERS 

Shoulders, long, smooth, with muscle, oblique, 
extending into back 

Arms, short, thrown forward 

Forearms, muscled, long, wide 

Knees, clean, wide, straight, deep, strongly 
supported 

Cannons, short, wide; sinews large, set back. , 

Fetlocks, wide, straight 

Pasterns, strong, angle with ground 45 degrees . 

Feet, medium, even size; straight; horn dense; 
frog large, elastic; bars strong; sole concave; 
heel wide 

Legs, viewed in front, a perpendicular line from 
the point of the shoulder should fall upon the 
centre of the knee, cannon, pastern, and foot. 
From the side a perpendicular line dropping 
from the centre of the elbow-joint should fall 
upon the centre of the knee and pastern joints 
and back of hoof 



stand- 
ard 



POINTS 

deficient 



stu- 
dent's 
score 



cor- 
rected 



IIOKSES 



351 



SCORE-CARD 

(Continued) 



LIGHT HORSES 



MARKET 



SCALE OF POINTS 


stand- 
ard 


POINTS 
DEFICIENT 


stu- 
dent's 

SCORE 


COR- 
RECTED 


BODY 

"Withers, muscled and well finished at top 

Chest deep low large sirth 


1 

2 
2 

2 
2 

1 

2 
2 
1 
2 
2 
2 
5 
2 
1 
2 

4 

4 

5 
15 










Ribs, long, sprung, close 

Back, straiglit, short, broad, muscled 

Loin, wide, short, thick 

Underline, long; flank let down 


















HIND-QUARTERS 

Hips, smooth, wide, level 

Croup, long, wide, muscular 














Thighs, long, muscular, spread, open-angled. . . 

Quarters, heavily muscled, deep 

Gaskin, or Lower Thighs, long, wide, muscular 

Hocks, clearly defined, wide, straight 

Cannons, short, wide; sinews large, setback. . . 

Fetlocks, wide, straight 

Pasterns, strong, sloping 

Feet, medium, even size; straight; horn dense, 
frog large, elastic; bars strong; sole concave; 
heel wide, high 

Legs, viewed from behind, a perpendicular line 
from the point of the buttock should fall upon 
the centre of the hock, cannon, pastern, and 
foot. From the side, a perpendicular line 
from the hip- joint should fall upon the centre 
of the foot and divide the gaskin in the mid- 
dle; and a perpendicular line from the point of 
the buttock should run parallel with the line 
of the cannon 






































ACTION 

Walk, elastic, quick, balanced 

Trot, rapid, straight, regular, high 










Total 







100 








. 





352 FUNDAMENTALS OF FAKMING 

shows better quality or finish and better manners than any 
other class of horses. In beauty of form, style, and grace- 
ful carriage the best saddle-horses are unsurpassed. The 
action of the saddle-horse is very important. Besides being 
able to move in a straight, true manner, horses of this class 
should have the following gaits: (1) walk, (2) trot, (3) single 
foot, or rack, (4) canter, (5) slow pace, running walk, or fox 
trot. The market, however, recognizes a class of three- 
gaited saddle-horses, the gaits required being the walk, trot, 
and canter. 

In judging all classes great emphasis should be placed on 
sound, properly constructed feet and legs and strength of 
constitution. The score-card on pages 350 and 351 presents 
the points in detail to be considered in judging light horses 
from the market stand-point. 

Draft-Horses. Draft-horses range in weight from sixteen 
hundred pounds for the lighter sorts to twenty-two hun- 
dred pounds or even more for the heavier kinds. In height 
they range from fifteen hands three inches to seventeen 
hands. Weight, made up of heavy bone and muscle, is 
absolutely essential to the drafter in order that great power 
may be exerted in the collar. Whereas long, slender bones 
and muscles are conducive to quick action, comparatively 
short, heavy bones and thick muscles are conducive to 
power. The form of the typical draft-horse is therefore 
deep, wide, massive, and low set. Smoothness and sym- 
metry, as in other classes of horses, are also highly desirable. 
The points indicating good quality and strong constitution 
must be present here as in all other types of stock. The ex- 
pression "no foot no horse" is very often heard, but certainly 
is not applicable to any class of horses more than to draft- 



HORSES 353 

ers. Their heavy bodies and the heavy work they have to 
do make large, sound, well-shaped feet and sound, properly 
constructed limbs of the utmost importance. The action 
of draft-horses should be especially good at the walk, this 
being the gait at which they are generally required to per- 




FiG. 205. Draft type, Percheron gelding. 
Courtesy of R. F. Hildebrand. 



form their work. However, good action at the trot is also 
highly valued. The walk should be straight, smooth, quick, 
and well balanced, with good length of stride. The trot 
should be free, straight, and regular. The points in detail 
to be considered in judging draft-horses from the market 
stand-point are given in the card on pages 354 and 355. 

285. Judging for Breeding Purposes.— In judging horses 
for breeding purposes the market demands must be kept in 



354 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

SCORE-CARD 

From Circular No. 29, Purdue University 



DRAFT-HORSES 



MARKET 



SCALE OP POINTS 



GENERAL APPEARANCE— 19 per cent 

1. Height, estimated. . . . hands; actual. . . .hands 

2. Weight, over 1,600 lbs., estimated lbs., 

actual lbs., according to age 

3. Form, broad, massive, well proportioned. 



blocky, symmetrical 
Quality, refined; bone clean, hard 



large, 
strong; tendons clean, defined; skin and hair 
fine; feather, if present, silky 

5. Temperament, energetic; disposition good. . . . 

HEAD AND NECK— 9 per cent 

6. Head, lean, proportionate size; profile straight. 

7. Ears, medium size, well can-led, alert 

8. Forehead, broad, full 

9. Eyes, full, bright, clear, same color 

10. Lower jaw, angles wide, clean 

11. Muzzle, neat; nostrils large, open, free from 

discharge; lips thm, even, firm 

12. Neck, well muscled, arched; throatlatch clean; 

windpipe large 



FORE-QUARTERS— 24 per cent 

13. Shoulders, moderately sloping, smooth, snug, 

extending into back 

14. Arm, short, strongly muscled, thrown back, 

well set 

15. Forearm, strongly muscled, wide, clean 

16. Knees, deep, straight, wide, strongly supported 

17. Cannons, short, wide, clean; tendons defined, 

set back 

18. Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean 

19. Pasterns, moderate length, sloping, strong, clean 

20. Feet, large, even size, sound; horn dense, waxy; 

sole concave; bars strong; frog large, elastic; 
heel wide and one-fourth to one-half the lineal 
length of toe 

21. Legs, viewed in front, a perpendicular line 

from the point of the shoulder should fall upon 
the centre of the knee, cannon, pastern, and 



STAND- 
ARD 



points 
deficient 



stu- 
dent's 
score 



COR- 
RECTED 



HORSES 



355 



SCORE-CARD 

(.Continued) 



DRAFT-HORSES 



MARKET 



SCALE OF POINTS 


STAND- 
ARD 


POINTS 
DEFICIENT 


stu- 
dent's 

SCORE 


COR- 
RECTED 


foot. From the side a perpendicular line 
dropping from the centre of the elbow-joint 
should fall upon the centre of the knee and 
pastern joints and back of the hoof 


3 

2 
2 
2 

2 

1 

2 

2 
1 

3 

2 
6 
2 
1 
2 

6 

3 

6 
3 






BODY 9 PER CENT 

22. Chest, deep, wide, large girth 






23. Ribs, long, well sprung, close; coupling strong. . 

24. Back, straight, broad, strongly muscled 

25 Loins wide short thickly muscled 




















HIND-QUARTERS— 30 per cent 

27. Hips, broad, smooth, level, well muscled 

28. Croup, not markedly drooping, wide, heavily 

muscled 

29 Tail stylishly set and carried 














30. Quarters, deep, broad, heavily muscled, thighs 
strong 










32. Hocks, large, clean, strong, wide, well set 

33. Cannons, short, wide, clean; tendons defined. . 

34. Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean 

35. Pasterns, moderately sloping, strong, clean. . . 

36. Feet, large, even size, sound; horn dense, waxy; 

sole concave; bars strong; frog large, elastic; 
heel wide and one-fourth to one-half the lin- 






















37. Legs, viewed from behind, a perpendicular line 
from the point of the buttock should fall upon 
the centre of the hock, cannon, pastern, and 
foot. From side, a perpendicular Ime from 
the hip- joint should fall upon the centre of the 
foot and divide the gaskin in the middle, and 
a perpendicular line from the point of the but- 
tock should rim parallel with the Ime of the 
cannon 






ACTION 9 PER CENT 

38. Walk, fast, elastic, regular, straight 

39. Trot, free, springy, balanced, straight 

Total . . • 














100 













356 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



mind, and in addition certain special breeding requirements. 
These are similar to those given under judging cattle for 
breeding purposes. The animal must always be pure bred, 
should be representative of its class and breed, should have 




Fig. 206. Draft type, Clydesdale stallion. 
Courtesy of R. F. Hildebrand. 



a strong constitution and all the other marks of prepotency. 
The male should be distinctly masculine in his character- 
istics and the female distinctly femimine. 

286. Breeds of Light Horses. — The principal breeds of 
light horses are as follows: 



ROADSTER, OR LIGHT-HARNESS TYPE 

American trotter and pacer. 
Orloff trotter. 



HORSES 357 

COACH, OR HEAVY-HARNESS TYPE 

Hackney. 
French coach. 
German coach. 
Cleveland bay. 

SADDLE TYPE 

American saddle-horse. 

Other breeds of light horses are the Arab and thorough- 
bred. 

The Arab breed is native to Arabia, where its develop- 
ment began several hundred years before the Christian era. 
It is therefore the oldest of our present-day breeds. It has 
been noted for its beauty of form, its style, quality, endurance, 
and intelligence. The size is not as great as that of the aver- 
age roadster, the height being from fourteen to fourteen and 
one-half hands. The color may be white, gray, bay, chest- 
nut, or black. The breed holds a place of great importance 
on account of the influence its blood has had in the develop- 
ment of many other breeds of light horses. 

The Thoroughbred horse had its origin in England toward 
the end of the seventeenth century. During this period 
several strains of Oriental horses, among which was the Arab, 
were crossed on the lighter English horses, thus producing 
the thoroughbred type. The breed is noted for its running 
speed, endurance, and quality, and for the influence it has 
had in the development of other breeds, notably the Ameri- 
can trotter and American saddle-horse. The height ranges 
from fourteen and one-half to sixteen and one-half hands, 
though from fifteen to fifteen and one-half hands is the most 
desirable height. The weight ranges from nine hundred to 



358 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



ten hundred and fifty pounds. The color varies considerably, 
browns, bays, and chestnuts being most common. This 
breed has been used chiefly for racing, both here and in Eng- 
land. 

American Trotter and Pacer. The trotter and the pacer 




Fig. 207. Five-gaited saddle-horse. 
Courtesy of B. F. Hildebrand. 



are of the same breed, about the only difference being in the 
gaits. As the name indicates, this breed has been devel- 
oped in the United States. It owes its origin chiefly to the 
thoroughbred. The work of development began in the early 
part of the nineteenth century. The chief characteristics 
of the breed have already been set forth in the description 
of the roadster. The type varies considerably, however, and 
in addition to roadsters the breed furnishes many horses that 



HORSES 359 

are suited for carriage purposes. Practically all colors pe- 
culiar to horses are found among trotters and pacers, but 
brown and bay are the most common ones. The trotting 
mare Lou Dillon holds the world's trotting record for one 
mile, the time being one minute fifty-eight and one-half 



^■* *" 






v^^^fll 


hI^BhI 


■■■■1 


"-^^%fe^^B 


^^HJIP 


HIH 


«.-H , 


TT^ 


Jm 


-\ •■" 


_. s^:,^^M 


^BB^^I 



Fig. 208. French coach stallion. 
Courtesy of B. F, Hildebrand. 

seconds. The pacing stallion Dan Patch holds the world's 
pacing record, the time being one minute fifty-five and one- 
half seconds. 

Hackney. The native home of the hackney is England. 
The development of the breed began in the eighteenth cen- 
tury, Arabian, Barb, Turkish, and thoroughbred stallions 
being crossed with the native mares of Norfolk and careful 
selection practised. The result is a breed of much uni- 



360 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



formity of type, presenting the best traits of the coach- 
horse. There is considerable variation in height, but fif- 
teen and one-half to fifteen and three-quarters hands is 
the height desired by most breeders. The color varies a 




Fig. 209. Hackney stallion. 
Courtesy of B. F. Hildehrand. 



great deal, chestnut, bay, and brown being common. A 
great many animals have white markings on legs, feet, and 
face. 

The French Coach and German Coach are similar to the 
hackney, except that the German coach is a little larger and 
has not quite as good action. 

American Saddle-Horse. Kentucky, Virginia, and Mis- 
souri have had most to do with the development of the 
American saddle-horse, often called the Kentucky saddle- 



HORSES 



361 



horse. The breed had its beginning during the early days 
of Kentucky, when there were no railroads and horseback 
travel was common, a condition that caused a demand for 
easy-gaited saddle-horses. The foundation of the breed was 








Fig. 210. Belgian stallion. 
Courtesy of R. F. Hildebrand. 



laid in crossing thoroughbred stallions of easy saddle gait on 
light types of mares possessing the same characteristic. This 
was followed by careful selection and resulted in a type of 
much uniformity. The chief characteristics of the breed were 
given under the description of market classes of horses. The 
color varies, but blacks and bays are most common. 

287. Breeds of Draft-Horses. — The principal breeds of 
draft-horses are the Percheron, the Clydesdale, the Shire, 
the Belgian, and the Suffolk, 



362 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



The Percheron. The native home of the Percheron breed 
is France, chiefly in the district of La Perche. The best 
Percherons of to-day embody all the desirable features that 
were described in the discussion of the draft-horse. The 
color is generally gray or blaL;k. Mature stallions usually 




Fig. 211. Shire stallion. 
Courtesy of R. F. Hildebrand. 



weigh from seventeen hundred to twenty-one hundred pounds 
and mature females from fifteen hundred to nineteen hun- 
dred pounds. The breed is now widely distributed in this 
country and is easily the leader of the draft breeds in popu- 
larity. A number of Percherons are owned in Texas and 
do well there. 

The Clydesdale. Scotland is the native home of this breed, 
where its development began in the early part of the eigh- 



HORSES 



363 



teenth century. It is noted for its good feet, sloping pas- 
terns, quality of bone, and good action. A thick fringe of 
hair occurs on the back of the legs along the cannons, which 
is termed ''feath- 



er. 




The color 
is generally bay 
or brown, with 
white in the face 
and on some part 
or all of the legs 
below the knees 
and hocks. 
Though Clydes- 
dales have been 
owned in the 
United States 
for many years, 
they have never 
gained the popu- 
larity here that they have in Canada, 
are preferred by farmers here. 

The Shire. This breed of horses, which was developed 
in England, resembles somewhat the Clydesdale. The Shire 
is the largest of the draft breeds with the possible exception 
of the Belgian. Horses of this breed have been owned in 
the United States for many years, but the breed has never 
become popular. 

The Belgian. The native home of this breed is Belgium, 
where it is bred under government supervision. Belgians 
are very compact and heavily built. Chestnut is the usual 
color, but roan, bay, and brown are common. 



Fig. 212. A good team of mules. 
Courtesy of A. and M. College of Texas. 

Clean-limbed horses 



364 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

The Suffolk. This breed is native to Suffolk County, Eng- 
land. The color of the breed is always chestnut, varying 
from a light to a dark shade. The type is quite uniform. 
The weight is not generally as great as that of other draft- 
horses. Suffolks have been imported into the United States 
to a limited extent. A few Suffolks are owned in Texas and 
seem well adapted to this State. 

288. Mules. — The mule is a hybrid, having for its dam a 
mare and for its sire a jackass. Mules themselves cannot 
breed. The mule has been for long years the principal draft 
animal used in the South, and good mules are nearly always 
in demand at good prices. Texas is as well adapted to suc- 
cessful mule-raising as any other State in the Union. While 
Texas is far ahead in number of mules, the quality is very 
low, owing to the use of inferior jacks and small mares for 
breeding. As mules are used for draft animals they must 
have weight. Before our mules can take high rank it will 
be necessary first to breed our small mares to larger size by 
using pure-bred stallions of heavy type. Then by using the 
larger mares and selected jacks a better grade of mule will 
be produced. 



QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES 

175. Find and score one horse of each type. 

176. How many breeds of horses are there in your community and what 

are they? 

177. Plan with the teacher and class a Saturday trip to visit and score 

each type of horse in your community. 

178. Study your references and draw a plan for a good practicable 

stable for your farm, having place for horses, cows, feed, and 
harness. 



HORSES 365 

REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING 

"Productive Horse Husbandry," C. W. Gay. 
"Types and Breeds of Farm Animals," C. S. Plumb. 
"The Horse," I. P. Roberts. 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

"Breeds of Draft Horses." 
"Colts: Breaking and Training." 
"How to Select a Sound Horse." 
"Breeds of Light Horses." 
"The Feeding of Horses." 
"The Stable Fly." 
"Dourine of Horses." 



No. 


619. 


No. 


667. 


No. 


779. 


No. 


952. 


No. 


1030. 


No. 


1097. 


No. 


1146. 


3au of Anil 


No. 


3. 


No. 


113. 


No. 


124. 


No. 


137. 


No. 


138. 


No. 


178. 



Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletins: 
"Market Classes of Horses." 
"Classification of American Carriage Horses." 
"Suggestions for Horse and MuleRaising in the South." 
"Preservation of Our Native Types of Horses." 
"Swamp Fever of Horses." 
"Breeding Horses for the United States Army." 



CHAPTER XV 
SHEEP 

289. Sheep in America and Texas. — Sheep were probably 
among the earhest of domesticated animals, but there were 
no sheep in North America prior to its settlement by Euro- 
peans. They are not grown in Texas in as large numbers as 
formerly, though the flocks of to-day show great improve- 
ment over those of former times. The number of sheep in 
Texas, January 1, 1910, is given as 1,909,000, and the average 
price per head as $2.90. The number in Wyoming at the 
same time is given as 7,136,000, and the average value per 
head as $4.40. Wyoming ranks first of the States in the 
Union in point of numbers. In Iowa on the same date the 
number was only 754,000, but the average value per head was 
$5.30, the highest of any State in the Union. These figures 
indicate that Texas, the largest State in the Union, could 
support a greatly increased number of sheep, and that the 
quality of sheep in this State should be greatly improved. 
The latter must be accomplished by the selection of better 
animals for breeding purposes, and especially by the use of 
pure-bred rams of high merit. Sheep are well adapted to 
most sections of Texas where the land is well drained. None 
of our domestic animals is better adapted to the arid western 
regions. It would be profitable for nearly every farmer in 
the State to make the raising of sheep a part of his farming 
operations. 

366 



SHEEP 



367 



Sheep afford two sources of income, namely, mutton and 
wool. They surpass all other farm animals in destroying 
weeds, thereby making more room for valuable grasses to 
grow and making use of plants that otherwise would not 
only be of no value but detrimental. 

290. Judging Sheep. — Method of Examination. In judg- 
ing sheep it is necessary in examining them to use the hands 




Fig. 213. Points of the sheep: 1, muzzle; 2, mouth; 3, lips; 4, nostril; 
5, nose; 6, face; 7, forehead; 8, eye; 9, ear; 10, neck; 11, shoulder vein; 
12, brisket; 13, top of shoulder; 14, shoulder; 15, chest; 16, foreleg; 17, back; 
18,loin; 19, rump; 20, crops; 21, ribs, or side; 22, hip; 23, fore-flank; 24, belly; 
25, hind flank; 26, leg of mutton, or thigh; 27, dock; 28, twist; 29, hind leg. 
Courtesy of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. 

as well as the eyes on account of the covering of wool hiding 
the shape. The use of the hands is important also in ex- 
amining the wool. The best plan is to begin the examination 
at the head and continue it over the body to the hind- 
quarters and then make a thorough examination of the fleece. 
In doing this it is very important that the hands be held 
flat with the fingers together in a sloping position, for in this 
way it is possible to feel the different parts of the sheep's 



368 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

body without breaking the fleece. It is objectionable for the 
fingers to be stuck into the fleece because they make holes 
in it, thereby giving access to rain and dirt and detracting 
from the appearance. The illustrations in Figures 215 and 



Fig. 214. Mutton cuts on the sheep: 1, leg; 2, loin; 3, short back, or rib; 
4, breast ; 5, chuck. Courtesy of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. 

216 show the correct method of handling sheep in making 
the examination. 

291. General Classification of Sheep. — Sheep are divided 
into two main classes, mutton sheep and fine-wool sheep. Mut- 
ton sheep have been developed primarily for mutton, with 
wool as a secondary consideration. Fine-woolled sheep have 
been developed primarily for wool with practically no regard 
for mutton. We find that the two classes are represented 
by two distinctly different types. 



SHEEP 



369 



SCORE-CARD 

From Purdue University Circular No. 29 
MUTTON SHEEP 



PAT 



SCALE OP POINTS 



POINTS 
DEFICIENT 



STAND- 
ARD 



stu- 
dent's 

SCORE 



COR- 
RECTED 



1. Age. 



GENERAL APPEARANCE— 38 per cent 

2. Weight, score according to age 

3. Form, long, level, deep, broad, low set, stylish. . 

4. Quality, clean bone; silky hair; flue, pink skin; 

light in offal; yielding liigli percentage of meat 

5. Condition, deep, even covering of firm flesh, 

especially in regions of valuable cuts. Points 
indicating ripeness are: thick dock, back 
thickly covered with flesh, thick neck, full 
purse, full flank, plump breast <, 

HEAD AND NECK— 7 per cent 

6. Muzzle, flne, mouth large; lips thin, nostrils 

large and open 

7. Eyes, large, clear, placid 

8. Face, short; features clean cut; 

9. Forehead, broad, full 

10. Ears, fine, alert 

11. Neck, thick, short, free from folds 

FORE-QUARTERS — 7 per cent 

12. Shoulders, covered with flesh, compact on top; 

snug 

13. Brisket, neat, proportionate; breast wide 

14. Legs, straight, short, wide apart, strong; fore- 

arm full; shank smooth, fine 

BODY — 20 per cent 

15. Chest, wide, deep, full 

16. Ribs, well sprung, long, close 

17. Back, broad, straight, long, thickly fleshed. . . . 

18. Loin, thick, broad, long 



HIND-QUARTERS— 16 per cent 

19. Hips, far apart, level, smooth 

20. Rump, long, level, wide to tail-head 

21. Thighs, full, deep, wide 

22. Twist, plump, deep 

23. Legs, straight, short, strong; shank flne, smooth 

WOOL — 12 per cent 

24. Quality, long, dense, even 

25. Quality, flne, pure; crimp close, regular, even. . 

26. Condition, bright, sound, clean, soft, light. . . . 



Total , 



10 



10 



100 




Fig. 215. Judging the sheep. Estimating: ^. fulness of neck; B, depth 
of chest; C, width of chest and covering of ribs; D, firmness and covering of 
bacli; E, width of loin; F, width of rump. 

370 



SHEEP 



371 



^ 


pjiL'- 


.^Wi'S'.JB 


"" ^s 


n:^^ 






ft' 


^ 


1 


S|j| 






i 




'^^ 


«l 





Fig. 216. Judging the sheep. Estimating: G, length of rump ; H, devel- 
opment of leg of mutton; /, first quality of wool and examining same; J, poorest 
quality of wool and examining same. Figures 215 and 216, courtesy of the 
Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. 

292. Mutton Sheep. — Mutton sheep are divided in the 
same way that beef cattle are divided, into three classes — fat 
sheep, feeders, and breeders. With the sheep, the hind- 
quarter, loin, and ribs are the parts that produce the high- 
priced cuts. The score-card and Figures 215 and 216, to- 
gether with what was said on the steer, make all points plain. 

293. Breeds of Mutton Sheep. — ^The breeds of mutton 
sheep are divided into two classes based on the character of 



372 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

the wool. The two classes with the breeds included in each 
are as follows: 

MEDIUM-WOOLLED BREEDS LONG-WOOLLED BREEDS 

Southdown Leicester 

Shropshire Cotswold 

Oxford Down Lincoln 

Hampshire Down 

Dorset Horn 

Cheviot 

Suffolk Down 

Tunis 

Southdown. The native home of the Southdown breed is 
in the county of Sussex, England, the original stock being 
the native sheep of Sussex. The breed gets its name from 
the low range of chalky hills, known as the South Downs, 
which extend through the county. With its low-set, thick, 
smooth, plump form and high quality no breed of sheep ex- 
cels the Southdown for mutton. It is also noted for its 
hardy character. Southdown sheep are not heavy wool pro- 
ducers and lack in size. Mature rams average about one 
hundred and seventy-five pounds and mature ewes one 
hundred and thirty-five pounds. The average clip of wool 
per year for ewes is about six or seven pounds. Rams 
average a little higher. The color of the face, ears, and legs 
of the Southdown is grayish or reddish brown. They have 
wide adaptability and are justly popular. 

Shropshire. This breed of sheep originated in Shrop- 
shire and Staffordshire, England. The Shropshire is larger 
than the Southdown and produces a considerably heavier 
fleece. Mature rams average about two hundred and twenty- 
five pounds and ewes about one hundred and sixty pounds in 
weight. Ewes average from eight to ten pounds of wool per 
year and rams twelve to fifteen. The face, ears, and legs 



SHEEP 



373 



are usually dark brown or blackish brown. A distinguish- 
ing feature of the best specimens of the breed is the cover- 
ing of wool over the head and face, leaving only a small 
space bare around the mouth and nostrils. The ears should 




Fig. 217. Wether in fleece. 
Courtesy of Professor W. C. Coffey. 



be covered with fine wool instead of hair, and the legs should 
be well covered with wool down to the feet. 

Oxford Down. The native home of this breed is Oxford 
County, England. It has a mixture of Southdown, Hamp- 
shire, and Cotswold blood. It is the largest of the medium- 
woolled breeds. Mature rams weigh from two hundred and 
seventy five to three hundred pounds, while ewes weigh about 
two hundred pounds. The Oxford Down is also in the first 
rank in the amount of wool produced. A good flock should 



374 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



average about twelve pounds of wool per year. Sheep of 
this breed are not so heavily woolled over the head as the 
Shropshire, and the fleece is longer and more open. The 
color of the face and legs is a lighter brown than that of the 




Fig. 218. Wether shorn. 
Courtesy of Professor W. C. Coffey. 

Shropshire. On account of their large size and heavy fleece 
they have gained considerable favor in this country. 

Havipshire Dotvn. This is also an English breed, origi- 
nated by crossing Southdown rams on native ewes. It is 
next to the Oxford Down in size, but only medium in pro- 
duction of wool. The wool is not of high quality. There 
are many Hampshires in Texas, and they seem to be well 
suited to this region. They have the highly desirable qual- 
ity of dropping their lambs very early, earlier than any other 
mutton breed except the Dorset Horn. 



SHEEP 375 

Dorset Horn. It Is thought that this breed originated 
through the careful selection of breeding animals from native 
stock that existed in Dorset and surrounding counties in 
England. The other breeds of sheep that have been dis- 
cussed are hornless, but this breed, in the case of both males 
and females, has horns. The color of the face, nostrils, legs, 
and hoofs is white. The head should have a short fore top 
of wool. The body should be well covered with wool, which 
should extend down to the knees and hocks. In size the 
Dorset Horn ranks as medium among the medium-woolled 
breeds. Mature rams average about two hundred and 
twenty-five pounds, and mature ewes one hundred and sixty- 
five pounds. As a wool producer the breed does not rank 
high. Mature rams average about nine pounds and mature 
ewes about six pounds of unwashed wool. The breed is es- 
pecially noted for the production of early lambs and for the 
good milk-producing qualities of the ewes, making them 
especially good mothers. Several high-class flocks are now 
owned in this country, chiefly in the Northeastern States. 
The fact that the ewes can be bred to drop lambs at practi- 
cally any time of the year should do much to make the breed 
popular in this country, especially in the South. 

Long-WooUed Breeds. The long-woolled breeds of mutton 
sheep are better suited to colder climates and hence are more 
popular in Canada than Texas. The Lincoln is the largest 
of all breeds of sheep, the rams averaging three hundred 
pounds in weight and the ewes two hundred and seventy-five 
pounds. The fleece of rams weighs eighteen to twenty 
pounds and of ewes about fifteen pounds. The wool is noted 
for its length and lustre. The Cotswold is next in size, with 
a fleece eight inches long and weighing about ten pounds. 



376 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



The Leicester is the smallest of the long-woolled sheep, but has 
a fleece about the same weight as the Cots wold. The fleece 
of the long-woolled sheep is more open than that of the 
medium-woolled varieties. 

294. Fine-Woolled Sheep. — The Merino or fine-woolled 

type of sheep possesses a type 
of body closely resembling 
that of the dairy cow. In- 
stead of being full and square 
of form as is the mutton type, 
the Merino type is rather mus- 
cular and angular. The pro- 
duction of a heavy, dense fleece 
of fine quality, evenly dis- 
tributed over the whole body, 
is the primary consideration 
in breeding Merino sheep. 
Spain is the native land of 
the Merino, but all the im- 

proved breeds are from other 
countries. The score-card gives points in detail to be con- 
sidered in judging sheep of this type. 

295. Breeds of Fine-Woolled Sheep. — Fine-woolled sheep 
in the United States are chiefly represented by three breeds, 
American Merino, Delaine Merino, and Rambouillet. 

American Merino. This breed is simply an improved type 
of Spanish Merino, improved chiefly in this country. In 
size the American Merino varies considerably. Mature rams 
weigh from one hundred and thirty to over one hundred and 
fifty pounds, ewes average about one hundred pounds. Sheep 
of this breed stand in the front rank as to weight and quality 




Fig. 219. A good mutton type. 
Courtesy of Professor W. C. Coffey. 



SHEEP 

SCORE-CARD 

From "Judging Live Stock," by J. C. Craig. 



377 



FINE-WOOLLED SHEEP 



MARKET 



SCALE OF POINTS 



GENERAL APPEARANCE 

Form, level, deep, stylish, round rather than 

square 

Quality, clean, fine bone; silky hair; fine skin . . 

HEAD AND NECK 

Muzzle, fine; broad, wrinkly nose; pure white. . 

Eyes, large, clear, placid 

Face, wrinkly, covered with soft, velvety coat. . 

Forehead, broad, full 

Ears, soft, thick, velvety 

Neck, short, muscular, well set on shoulders. . . . 

FORE-QUARTERS 

Shoulder, strong, being deep and broad 

Brisket, projecting forward, breast wide 

Legs, straight, short, wide apart; shank smooth 
and fine 

BODY 

Chest, deep, fiill, indicating constitution 

Back, level, long; round ribbed 

Loin, wide, level 

Flank, low, making underline straight 

HIND-QUARTERS 

Hips, far apart, level, smooth 

Rump, long, level, wide 

Legs, straight, short, strong; shank smooth, fine 



WOOL 

Kind — Domestic, clean and bright. 
Territory, dirty or discolored. 

minklt \ ^^""y °^ liaving dead fibres. 

Class — Clothing, fibre under two inches in 
length or unsound. 
Delaine, fibre two or three inches in length. 
Combing, fibre over three inches in length and 
sound. 

Grade — Fine, medium, or coarse. 

Quantity — Long, dense, even covering, espe- 
cially over crown, cheek, armpit, hind legs, and 
belly 

Quality — Fine fibre, crimp close, regular; even 
quality including tops of folds 

Condition — Bright, lustrous, sound, pure, soft, 
even distribution of yolk, with even surface to 
fleece 

Total 



stand- 
ard 



15 
15 

15 



points 
deficient 



stu- 
dent's 
score 



100 



cor- 
rected 



378 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

of fleece and strength of fibre. Mature rams shear about 
twenty pounds and ewes from twelve to' fifteen pounds of 
unwashed wool. One two-year-old ram in Vermont sheared 
forty-four pounds three ounces. The length of the fleece of 
one year's growth is about two and one-half inches. The 
American Merino is characterized by heavy folds or wrinkles 
over the whole body except the back. This feature is much 
more pronounced than in the other fine-woolled breeds. The 
fleece covers the entire body and legs, leaving only the nose 
and ears bare. All of the fine-woolled breeds carry a much 
larger amount of oil or yolk in their fleeces than do the mut- 
ton breeds, but the American Merino carries more than any 
other breed. After a fleece of this breed has been scoured it 
may show a shrinkage in weight as high as sixty-five per cent. 
American Merino rams have large spirally twisted horns. 
The ewes are hornless. The large range flocks of Texas and 
other States of the West and Southwest were made up at one 
time largely of American Merinos. The breed is less popu- 
lar now, partly on account of the increasing demand for 
mutton and partly because of the demand for a type of sheep 
with fewer folds on the body, so that shearing may be less 
difficult. 

Delaine Merino. The Delaine Merino is a branch of the 
American Merino that has been developed especially in Ohio. 
The Delaine differs from the American Merino in the follow- 
ing ways: It is usually larger, is more thickly fleshed, thus 
making better mutton; is practically free of folds except 
about the neck; the fibre is longer, growing from three to 
^\e inches a year, but the fleece weighs less, partly on ac- 
count of having less oil in it; the rams may or may not 
have horns, the ewes are hornless. Delaine Merinos have 




Fig. 220. Mutton sheep: above, Shropshire ram lairim centre, Cots wold 
rams; below, Southdown ewe. 

Courtesy of Professor W. C. Coffey. 



380 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



H 


1 


■ 


s 


I 


I 








1 


Sj^l-^c'^^ffl 


B 


e£.U'^J^^ 


|HE||m 


s 


w^^^ 


*^ 




^^a^V-^^^ 


1? 




Fig. 221. Rambouillet ram above, Delaine 
ram in centre. Hampshire ram below. 

Courtesy of Professor W. C. Coffey. 



become widely dis- 
tributed in theUnited 
States. Rams of this 
breed have been used 
extensively in the 
range flocks of the 
West and Southwest. 
Rambouillet. The 
native home of the 
Rambouillet is in 
France. In 1783 the 
French government 
purchased a large 
farm near the village 
of Rambouillet for 
the purpose of de- 
veloping an im- 
proved type of fine- 
woolled sheep. It is 
from this village that 
the breed gets its 
name. The Ram- 
bouillet is the largest 
of the fine-wooUed 
breeds. The average 
weight of mature 
rams is about one 
hundred and eighty- 
five pounds and of 
mature ewes one 
hundred and fifty to 



SHEEP 381 

one hundred and sixty pounds. Mature rams shear on the 
average about ten pounds of wool per year. The fleece of the 
breed is not quite as fine as that of the other fine-woolled 
breeds and does not contain as much oil. The length for 
one year's growth is about three inches. In mutton qualities 
the Rambouillet is the best of the fine-woolled sheep. Folds 
occur usually only on the neck and breast. Rams usually 
have large spirally twisted horns, though some are hornless. 
The ewes are hornless. Wool covers the entire body and 
legs, leaving only the nose and ears bare. Numerous im- 
portations have been made into the United States and 
to-day the breed is extensively distributed throughout the 
country. On account of the ease with which it is sheared 
and its fairly good mutton qualities it has gained much 
favor in the West and Southwest, where the rams are used 
extensively. 



Goats 

296. Uses of the Goat. — Goats are valued chiefly for the 
production of fleece called mohair, and for the production of 
milk and mutton. There have been no strains or breeds of 
goats developed primarily for mutton production. Though 
goat meat is used to some extent, the flesh of kid or young 
goat especially being of good quality and flavor, it has never 
become popular. Several breeds of milk goats have been 
developed in various countries, notably on the island of 
Malta, in Switzerland, Germany, Egypt, Abyssinia, and 
South Africa. In the United States milk goats have not 
come into much favor, though in recent years a number of 
importations have been made. The breed of goats most 



382 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 




popular in the United States is the Angora, which has been 
developed primarily for its mohair. 

The Angora Goat The native home of this goat is in the 
district of Angora, in Asia Minor. It is very probable that 
it has inhabited this region since before the Christian era. 

The Angora is adapted 
to a wide range of con- 
ditions, but seems to 
thrive best in a rather 
dry climate. Texas, New 
Mexico, and other South- 
western States are par- 
ticulariy well adapted to 
the raising of Angoras, 
and are noted for large 
flocks of both pure breds 
and grades. 
Being browsers by nature and not grazing animals, they 
are very effective in destroying tree-sprouts from "cut-over" 
land and brush and undergrowth of all kinds. They are used 
extensively to keep down undergrowth. 

The Angora is smaller than the common goat, weighing 
usually from sixty to one hundred pounds. The back should 
be straight, shoulders and hips equal height, chest broad, 
body round, legs short and strong, head clean cut, eye bright, 
and muzzle broad. Avoid sloping rump, drooping head, and 
pinched nostril. The ears may be six to eight inches long 
and pendant or short and pointed. The fleece should be pure 
white, and should cover the entire body up to the ears and 
jaw. The mohair should grow to the length of about ten 
inches during a year, and should hang in tight ringlets or 



Fig. 222. Angora buck. 
Courtesy of Mr. J. V. Hardy. 



SHEEP 383 

wavy curls that extend entirely to the skin. The fleece usu- 
ally weighs about three pounds, though many flocks average 
four or four and a half pounds. Occasionally animals produce 
heavier fleeces. The Angora sheds its fleece each spring if 
not shorn. On this account it is necessary in the South to 
shear rather early in the spring, usually during March. If 
care is not taken to prevent goats from getting wet for five 
or six weeks after shearing they often contract colds and 
heavy losses result. 

QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES 

179. How many sheep are raised on your farm and what breeds are they? 

180. How many sheep could be raised on your farm without interfering 

with the crops now raised? 

181. Make a plan for a small beginning in sheep-raising on your farm, 

finding exactly what this would cost and estimating the probable 
returns. 

182. What other advantages not mentioned in the text are there in sheep- 

raising? What are the difficulties in the way in your locality? 

183. What difficulties are there on your farm in the way of raising goats? 

184. Find from your referen?es the best methods of caring for and pro- 

tecting sheep and explain these to the class. 

185. If each sheep consumes 500 pounds of roughage, 50 cents' worth of 

pasture, and four bushels of oats a year, and produces seven 
pounds of wool and one lamb, what, at the prices in your com- 
munity, will a farmer gain or lose on a flock of 100 sheep? 

REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING 

"Productive Sheep Husbandry," E. Y. Coffee. 

''Sheep Management, Breeds and Judging," Frank Kleinheinz. 

"Types and Breeds of Farm Animals," C. S. Plumb. 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

No. 576. "Breeds of Sheep for the Farm." 
No. 713. "Sheep Scab." 



384 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

No. 798. "The Sheep Tick and Its Eradication by Dipping." 

No. 810. "Equipment for Farm Sheep Raising." 

No. 840. "Farm Sheep Raising for Beginners." 

No. 920. "Milli Goats." 

No. 1134. "Castrating and Docking Lambs." 

No. 1150. "Parasites and Parasitic Diseases of Sheep." 

No. 1155. "Diseases of Sheep" (Infectious and Non-infectious). 

No. 1172. "Farm Slaughtering and Use of Lamb and Mutton." 

No. 1181. "Raising Sheep on Temporary Pastures." 

No. 1199. "Judging Sheep." 

No. 1203. "The Angora Goat." 

No. 1268. "The Sheep-Kilhng Dog." 

Texas Experiment Station Bulletins: 

No. 205. "Sheep Breeding and Feeding." 

No. 232. "Mineral Requirements of Sheep." 

Nos. 269, 285. "Grain Sorghums vs. Corn for Fattening Lambs." 



CHAPTER XVI 
HOGS 

297. Importance of the Hog Industry in Texas. — Hogs 
should be one of the most important factors in diversified 
farming. Very few farms are complete without them, es- 
pecially in the Southwest. As a rule the farmer who does 
not count them as one of his principal crops does not realize 
from his farm what it is capable of yielding him. Not only 
can the farmer through raising hogs often produce his own 
meat supply, by feeding what would otherwise be wasted, 
but he can market much of his grain and forage crops more 
profitably when converted into pork and lard than in any 
other form. The hog is excelled only by the dairy cow in 
economy in converting foodstuff into an animal product 
for use as food by man. The number of hogs in Texas 
January 1, 1910, was reported to be 3,205,000, and the 
average price per head was $6.60. Iowa ranks first in 
number of hogs, having 6,485,000, valued at SI 1.30 each. 
Rhode Island and Connecticut rank first in point of 
value per head, this being in these States $12.50. Texas 
ranks third in numbers, but in the average price per head 
her rank is very low. In many respects Texas is better 
adapted to successful hog-raising than Iowa. Our farm- 

385 



L 



386 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



ers can grow successfully not only corn and other grains 
suited to hogs, but they can grow also different kinds of green 
forage crops practically throughout the year. These green 
forage crops which hogs may graze and harvest themselves 




Fig. 223. Wholesale pork cuts located on the live animal: 1, head; 
2, shoulder; 3, loin; 4, belly; 5, ham. Pure-bred Berkshire barrow. 
From Purdue University Circular No. 29. 



are among the most important factors in the economical pro- 
duction of pork. Hence, with her natural advantages Texas 
could easily rank first as a hog-raising State both in respect 
to numbers and value per head. In order to do this, how- 
ever, Texas farmers must give more attention to the selection 
of good breeding stock and must learn to feed and care for 
their hogs better. In all cases only good, pure-bred males of 
the chosen breed should be used. The scrub and grade male 
should be sent to the butcher's block. The cost of a pure- 
bred boar is so small that there is no excuse for breeding scrub 
hogs. The pure breds and grades not only grow to larger 



HOGS 387 

size, but mature earlier and have weight In those parts of the 
body that furnish the high-price cuts. The demand for ham, 
bacon, lard, and other hog products is steadily increasing, and 
with proper management a good margin of profit exists in 
producing hogs for the market. The meat that is used at 



,--—- 1 


^^S-3 


^t^ 





Fig. 224. Wholesale pork cuts: 1, short-cut ham; 2, loin; 3, belly; 4, pic- 
nic butt; 5, Boston butt; 6, jowl; 7, hock; 8, fat back; 9, clear plate; 2, 3, 8, 
side; 2, 8, back; 4, 7, picnic shoulder; 5, 9, shoulder butt; 8, 9, long fat back; 
4, 5, 7, 9, rough shoulder. 

From Purdue University Circular No. 29. 



home can be produced on the farm much more cheaply than 
it can be bought. 

298. The Care of Hogs. — Hogs are healthier and can be 
raised much more economically if they live partly on pasture 
and green crops than when kept in pens all the time and fed. 
They should usually have a little grain to balance their ration 
properly, but by growing such crops as alfalfa, clover, peas, 
soy-beans, vetch, sorghum, and pea-nuts for hogs the cost of 
pork is greatly reduced. A part of these crops may be har- 
vested by the hogs themselves. 

As the hog makes greater gain per hundred pounds of food 
consumed when it is young than when it is grown, it is usually 



388 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

more profitable to grow them rapidly and sell before they are 
a year old. 

Sows need attention, especially at farrowing time, and should 
be protected against the weather, and the pigs should be pro- 
tected against the stupidity and awkwardness of the mother. 




Fig. 225. Points of the hog: 1, snout; 2, eye; 3, face; 4, ear; 5, jowl; 
6, neck; 7, shoulder; 8,foreleg; 9, hind leg; 10, breast; 11, chest line; 12, back; 
13, loin; 14, side; 15. tail; 16, fore flank; 17, hind flank; 18, hip; 19, rump; 
20, belly; 21, ham; 22, stifle; 23, hock; 24, pasterns; 25, dew-claw; 26, foot. 

From Purdue University Circular No. 29. 



The little cot shown in the cut offers one easy and inexpen- 
sive means of meeting these needs. Further suggestions 
should be looked up in your references. 

Hog cholera, which for so many years was such a scourge, 
has now been conquered by the scientists, so that its ravages 
may be checked by making the hogs immune through a form 
of inoculation. Whenever hog cholera appears, notice should 
at once be sent to the Agricultural and Mechanical College 



HOGS 



389 



SCORE-CARD 

From Purdue University Circular No, 29 
FAT HOGS MARKET 



SCALE OF POINTS 



GENERAL APPEARANCE— 30 pee cent 

1. Weight, score according to age 

2. Form, deep, broad, medium length; smooth, 

compact, symmetrical; standing squarely on 
medium short legs 

3. Quality, hair smooth and fine; bone medium 

size, clean, strong; general appearance smooth 
and refined 

4. Covering, finished; deep, even, mellow, free 

from lumps and wrinkles 

HEAD AND NECK— 8 per cent 

5. Snout, medium length, not coarse 

6. Eyes, not sunken, clear, not obscured by 

wrinkles 

7. Face, short; cheeks full 

8. Ears, fine, medium size, attached neatly 

9. Jowl, full, firm, neat 

10. Neck, tliick, short, smooth to shoulder 

FORE-QUARTERS— 12 per cent 

11. Shoulders, broad, deep, smooth, compact on 

top 

12. Breast, full, smooth, neat 

13. Legs, straight, short, strong; bone clean, hard; 

pasterns short, strong, upright; feet medium 
size 

BODY 33 PER CENT 

14. Chest, deep, wide, large girth 

15. Sides, deep, full, smooth, medium length 

16. Back, broad, strongly arched, thickly and 

evenly covered 

17. Loin, wide, thick, strong 

18. Belly, straight, smooth, firm 

HIND-QUARTERS— 17 per cent 

19. Hips, wide apart, smooth 

20. Rump, long, level, wide, evenly fleshed 

21. Ham, heavily fleshed, full, firm, deep, wide. . . . 

22. Legs, straight, short, strong; bone clean, hard; 

pasterns short, strong, upright; feet medium 
sized 

Total 



STAND- 
ARD 



4 

10 

6 
10 



100 



POINTS 
DEFICIENT 



stu- 
dent's 

SCORE 



COR- 
RECTED 



390 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



SCORE-CARD 

From "Judging Live Stock," by J. A. Craig 
BACON HOGS MARKET 



SCALE OF POINTS 



GENERAL APPEARANCE 

Weight, 170 to 200 lbs., largely the result of 
thick cover of firm flesh 

Form, long, level, smooth, deep 

Quality, hair fine; skin thin; bone fine; firm, 
even covering of flesh without any soft 
bunches of fat or wrinkles 

Condition, deep, uniform covering of flesh, es- 
pecially in regions of valuable cuts 

HEAD AND NECK 

Snout, fine 

Eyes, full, mild, bright 

Pace, slim 

Ears, trim, medium size 

Jowl, light, trim 

Neck, medium length, light 

PORE-QUARTERS 

Shoulders, free from roughness, smooth, com- 
pact, and same width as back and hind-quar- 
ters 

Breast, moderately wide, full 

Legs, straight, short, strong, bone clean; pas- 
terns upright; feet medium size. 

BODY 

Chest, deep, full girth 

Back, medium and uniform in width, smooth. . . 

Sides, long smooth, level from beginning of 
shoulders to end of hind-quarters. The side 
at all points should touch a straight edge run- 
ning from fore to hind quarter 

Ribs, deep 

Belly, trim, firm, thick, without any flabbiness 
or shrinkage at flank 

HIND-QUARTERS 

Hips, smooth, wide; proportionate to rest of 

body 

Rump, long, even, straight, rounded toward tail. 
Gammon, firm, rounded, tapering, fleshed deep 

and low toward hocks 

Legs, straight, short, strong; feet medium size; 

bone clean ; pasterns upright 

Total 



stand- 
ard 



10 



100 



POINTS 
DEFICIENT 



stu- 
dent's 

SCORE 



COR- 
RECTED 



HOGS 391 

and the help of an expert secured to eradicate it. In order 
to prevent disease getting a hold or spreading among hogs 
several precautions should be taken. First, any newly 
bought hog should be kept to himself for several days before 
being put with the other hogs; second, hogs should not be 



Fig. 226. The bacon type. Champion yearling Tamworth sow. 
Courtesy of ''Farm and Ranch." 

allowed to drink water that may be contaminated. Run- 
ning streams often carry infection into a farm; third, hogs 
should not be kept together in large herds, but in small herds 
separated from one another. 

299. Judging Hogs.— Hogs are divided into two general 
classes: fat or lard hogs and hacon hogs. 

Fat Hogs supply the market's demand for lard, well-de- 
veloped hams and shoulders, broad, fat backs, broad, thick 
loins, and thick side meat. Such hogs necessarily have a 
deep, wide, thick form of medium length and short legs. The 



392 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

best fat hog is one which will produce the highest per cent 
of dressed carcass of the best quality. This is the hog for 
which the butcher or packer will pay the highest price. The 
score-card on page 389 gives in detail the points to be con- 
sidered in judging fat hogs. 

Bacon Hogs. The bacon hog is comparatively narrow 
and upright in form, rather light in hams and shoulders, but 
long and deep in the sides. This type of hog supplies the 
market with bacon of the best quality. The points to be 
considered in judging bacon hogs are given in the score-card 
on page 390. 

Hogs for Breeding Purposes. In judging hogs for breed- 
ing purposes the same points must be kept in mind as in 
judging all other breeding animals. The animal must, in 
addition to being good from the market stand-point, be a 
typical representative of its breed, show evidence of a strong 
constitution, and the characteristics of its sex. The sow 
should have twelve fully developed teats and should be some- 
what longer of body than the boar of the same breed. It is 
especially important that she possess a gentle yet active dis- 
position, as a wild, nervous, or sluggish sow is liable to injure 
her pigs. 

300. Breeds of Fat Hogs. — The principal breeds of fat 
hogs are the Berkshire, Poland-China, Duroc-Jersey, Chester 
White, Essex, Cheshire, Victoria, and Small Yorkshire. 

Berkshire. England is the native home of this breed of 
hogs. The Berkshire of to-day is characterized by a rather 
long body, short, dished face, and medium-sized, pointed, 
erect ears. The color is black, with white on face, feet, and 
tip of tail. White spots sometimes occur on the body, and 
though objectionable, they do not indicate impurity of breed. 




Fig. 227. The lard or fat hog type: above, a Berkshire boar; in centre, a 
Poland-China sow; below, a Duroc-Jersey boar. 

Courtesy of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. 



k 



394 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

In size, hogs of this breed rank from medium to large. Ma- 
ture boars in breeding condition average about five hundred 
pounds and mature sows about four hundred pounds. Many 
individuals weigh much more. The breed is adapted to a 
very wide range of conditions and to-day is one of the most 
widely distributed breeds in the United States. It has 
proved to be well adapted to Southern conditions, and in 
Texas is one of the most popular breeds. 

Poland-China. This breed of hogs originated in the 
United States, chiefly in Ohio during the period between 1825 
and 1840. The modern type of Poland-Ghina shows much 
quality and a decidedly thick, low-set form of medium length. 
The head is broad and of medium length and the face is prac- 
tically straight. The ears should be of medium size and 
fine and the top third should droop. The color is generally 
black, with white on face, feet, and tip of tail. White spots 
on the body are not uncommon, however. In size the Poland- 
China holds about the same rank as the Berkshire. Some 
breeders have bred for a much larger type than have others. 
This breed has become widely distributed in the United 
States, and has met with special favor in the corn-belt region 
on account of its easy fattening and early maturing qualities. 
It is well adapted to the South, and in Texas has long been 
very popular. 

DuroC'Jersey. This American breed of hogs had its origin 
in the combination of the large, coarse Jersey Red of New 
Jersey with the finer red Duroc breed of New York. The 
breeders of these two breeds decided on a definite standard 
for the Duroc-Jersey in 1877. The best breeders of other 
red hogs soon afterward adopted the Duroc-Jersey standard 
and a systematic development of the breed followed. The 



HOGS 



395 



Duroc-Jersey of to-day resembles the Poland-China to a con- 
siderable degree except in color. The head is wide and of 
medium length and the face is only slightly dished. The 
ears are of medium size, the upper third droops forward. 
The color varies from a light or yellowish red to a cherry red, 




Fig. 228. Wigwam hog cot used at the Wisconsin Station. 
Courtesy of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



the latter being in greatest favor. In size the Duroc-Jersey 
ranks among the largest of the fat-hog breeds. Mature 
boars in good condition should average about six hundred 
pounds, and mature sows about five hundred. The breed is 
widely distributed in the United States, and has gained much 
favor. It is well adapted to the South, and in Texas is one 
of the most popular breeds. 

Chester White. This breed originated in Chester County, 
Pennsylvania, about the beginning of the nineteenth cen- 
tury. It resulted from crossing a white hog common in that 
region known as the Big China with some white hogs of 
Yorkshire descent. This breed also resembles the Poland- 
China except in color, and is about the same weight. In the 
Eastern and corn-belt States the Chester White has long been 
held in high favor. It is not so well adapted to Southern con- 



L 



396 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

ditions as the Berkshire, Poland-China, and Duroc- Jersey, 
on account of its color. The long, hot summers of the South 
cause the skin to sun-scald and become scurfy. 

The Essex, Cheshire, Victoria, and Yorkshire breeds are 
not widely distributed in America. 

301. Breeds of Bacon Hogs. — The breeds of bacon hogs 
are the Tamworth, the Large Yorkshire, and the Hampshire. 

The Tamworth is one of the oldest English breeds of hogs. 
Since the early part of the nineteenth century it has been 
improved through careful selection and without any infusion 
of foreign blood. The result is that to-day representatives 
of the breed are very uniform in type and color. Tam- 
worths are decidedly of the bacon type, being long and deep 
of body and lacking the width which characterizes the fat- 
hog breeds. The head is long of snout, the face is slightly 
dished, and the ears are rather large and carried erect or 
tilted slightly forward without drooping. The color varies 
from a dark to a light shade of red, a cherry red being pre- 
ferred. In size the breed is of the first rank. Mature boars 
average six hundred pounds and mature sows four hundred 
and fifty pounds. Some boars weigh as much as one thou- 
sand pounds. Tamworths are very hardy and are indus- 
trious in seeking food. The sows are noted for being pro- 
lific breeders. The breed is popular in Canada, where there 
is a greater demand for the bacon type of hog than in the 
United States. The Tamworth is well adapted to the South 
and is growing in favor here. Several good herds are owned 
in Texas. 

Large Yorkshire. This breed of hogs originated in Eng- 
land. It is quite uniform in type, with a long, deep body of 
medium width, making it well suited to bacon production. 



HOGS 



397 



The head is of medium length, the face somewhat dished, and 
the ears, though often inchned to droop, should be carried 
erect. The hair is white and the skin pink, with an occa- 
sional bluish or black spot. In size the Large Yorkshire is 




Fig. 229. These pigs are litter mates. The larger one is the boy's, the 
smaller one his father's. Good stock is necessary for best results, but good 
stock must have good care and feeding. 

Courtesy of " Farm and Ranch." 



one of the largest breeds of hogs. Mature boars usually 
weigh from six hundred to seven hundred pounds and mature 
sows from four hundred and fifty to six hundred. The 
boar occasionally weighs over a thousand. In Canada this 
is the leading breed of hogs. It is popular also in a few 
of the Northern States. A few Yorkshires are owned in 



398 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

Texas, but they are not well adapted to this and other South- 
ern States on account of their color. 

Hampshire. This breed, which was formerly called the 
Thin Rind, on account of its thin skin and soft, silky hair, has 
been bred for many years in Kentucky, Indiana, and Illi- 
nois. While it is raised in other States, including Texas, it 
has never become widely popular. A striking feature of the 
breed is a white belt from four to twelve inches wide encir- 
cling the black body about the shoulders and foreribs. In 
size this breed is medium. 

QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES 

186. How much meat is bought per year on your farm, and how much 

does it cost? 

187. How many hogs would it be necessary to raise per year to supply 

the meat needed on your farm, and how many acres of land 
would be required to feed the hogs? 

188. Find out how much a young boar and young sows of the lead- 

ing breeds cost in your community, and figure the expense of 
starting a small pure-bred or grade herd. 

189. If it were true that a slow-growing scrub would give as large a car- 

cass per hundred pounds of food consumed as a pure-bred hog, 
what would still be the advantages in raising pure-bred or high- 
grade hogs? 

190. Get your father to let you feed and care for a litter of pigs. Keep 

an exact account of all food used, and find what it costs per 
pound to produce this meat. Charge all home-raised food at 
its market value and all bought food at cost. 

191. What foodstuff is wasted on your farm that could be eaten by hogs? 

192. Is there idle land on your farm on which crops could be grown 

easily for feeding hogs? 

REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING 

"Pork Production," W. A. Smith. 
"Success with Hogs," Charles Dawson. 



HOGS 399 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

No. 438. "Hog Houses." 

No. 614. "A Corn-Belt Farming System which Saves Harvest 

Labor by Hogging Down Crops." 
No. 780. "Castration of Pigs." 
No. 781. "Tuberculosis of Hogs." 
No. 834. "Hog Cholera." 
No. 874. "Swine Management." 
No. 906. "The Self-Feeder for Hogs." 
No. 951. "Hog Pastures for the Southern States." 
No. 966. "A Simple Hog-Breeding Crate." 

No. 985. "Systems of Hog Farming in the Southeastern States." 
No. 1018. "Hemorrhagic Septicemia, Stockyard Fever, Swine 

Plague, Fowl Cholera, etc." 
No. 1085. "Hog Lice and Hog Mange." 
No. 1186. "Pork on the Farm: Killing, Curing, and Canning." 

The A. and M. College of Texas Extension Service Bulletins: 
No. B-52. "Hogs in Texas." 
No. C-12. "Feeding and Care of the Brood Sow and Litter." 

Texas Experiment Station Bulletins : 

No. 224. "The Influence of Pea-nuts and Rice Bran on the Qual- 
ity of Pork." 
No. 226. "Co-operative Soft Pork Investigations." 
No. 228. "The Influence of Pea-nut Meal on Quality of Pork." 
No. 242. "Hardening of Pea-nut-Fed Hogs." 



CHAPTER XVII 
POULTRY 

302. Poultry in the United States. — On most farms the 
raising of poultry is a side issue to which little intelligent at- 
tention is given. Each year, however, more farmers are 
realizing that poultry is one of the best-paying farm products. 
In the amount of human food that they supply per acre, 
chickens are surpassed only by the dairy cow. In many 
cases the money returns are much greater from poultry than 
from the dairy. The total poultry production of the United 
States in 1920 was valued at $1,250,000,000, while that of 
Texas was estimated at $43,303,000 for the same year. 
Texas ranks first in production of turkeys and fifth in total 
poultry production in the United States. 

303. Texas and the South Well Suited to Poultry-Raising. 
— ^The mild winters and the comparatively dry climate of 
Texas and of most of the South are highly favorable to poul- 
try-raising. The fowls can exercise in the open and secure 
fresh, green foods almost every day in the year, which greatly 
promotes both growth and egg-laying, and lessens the cost 
of housing and feeding. Only a reasonable amount of in- 
telligent care is needed to increase vastly the value of the 
poultry products of this section. 

304. Advantages of Poultry on the Farm. — The fowls on 
a farm bring probably a greater net profit above the cost of 

400 



POULTRY 401 

production than any other animal or crop, because usually 
they range widely and feed largely on grass, weed-seed, bugs, 
and insects injurious to the crops. Such additional feed as 
they need can be provided through waste from the garden 
and crib and through inexpensive crops raised for their sup- 
port. The fact that poultry brings in ready cash every 




Fig. 230. On the left is the annual product from the average hen, 75 eggs. 
On the right is the product of one of the good hens at the experiment station, 
220 eggs. Why waste food and labor on poor stock? 

Courtesy of the University of Minnesota, Department of Extension. 



month in the year is a great convenience. In addition, poul- 
try serves a valuable purpose in destroying thousands of in- 
jurious insects and in providing the farm home all through 
the year with fresh, delicious, wholesome human food in con- 
venient quantities. With a reasonable supply of eggs and 
poultry, a few sheep and dairy cows, an orchard and a gar- 
den, the farmer is independent of the city market. 

305. How to Start and How to Improve the Flock.— One 
may start a paying flock of poultry either by purchasing 
from a reliable dealer or a neighbor hatching eggs, day-old 



402 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

chicks, or a trio of adults. No one breed can be said to be 
better than all others under all circumstances. Usually it 
is best to select a breed that has proved itself well adapted 
to your locality. Get your stock from a flock that is itself 
strong, active, and healthy. Unless one starts with good 
stock, failure is certain no matter how much care is given to 




Fig. 231. On the left is a hen with strong constitution; on the right one 
with weak constitution. 

A bird having a strong constitution "should be active and show strong char- 
acter; its comb should be red; beak short, stout, and well curved; eye bright 
and clear; face rather short; head moderately broad; neck short and stout; 
back broad, with width well carried back; breast round and full; body rather 
long, deep, and broad; tail erect; legs moderately short, straight, and wide 
apart; bones in legs flat; plimiage abundant and very glossy." 

Courtesy of the University of Minnesota, Department of Extension. 



the flock. Under ordinary conditions a hen that produces 
less than sixty eggs per year is not profitable. It is a waste 
to keep such stock when the flock, by intelligent selection and 
care, may be brought to produce eighty or a hundred or 
more eggs per year per hen. Even when one starts with 
good stock, some of the offspring will be poor, hence con- 
stant watch should be kept and all hens culled out that from 



POULTRY 



403 



their size, shape, activity, and general appearance are found 
to be poor layers. In selecting the breeding stock, choose 
both males and females of good size, with deep, broad bodies, 
clear, sharp eyes, stocky, well-developed legs and feet, broad 
and well-proportioned heads. Select those that have good 
appetite and are alert and active, and that lay large eggs. 




Fig. 232. On the left, a convenient out-door feed-hopper; in centre and on 
right, convenient and safe feeding and watering devices. 

Courtesy of the U. S. Department of Agriculture and the University of Minnesota. 



Cull out excitable, flighty birds, and those that lay small or 
poorly shaped eggs. As the rooster is a powerful factor in 
transmitting egg-laying qualities, it is very necessary to keep 
only roosters that are the offspring of the best-laying hens. 
Roosters therefore must not be selected merely by their ap- 
pearance. They should have good individual form, but must 
also have good hereditary qualities. 

306. Feeding and Care of the Flock. — No matter how good 
the stock may be, there will be few eggs and poor chicks if 
the flock is not given proper food and care. First of all 
an egg is 55 per cent water, hence poultry must have a plen- 



404 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

tiful supply of clean, fresh water so placed that they can 
not easily pollute it by getting their feet into it. Some de- 
sirable types of homemade feeding-racks are shown in 
Figure 232. The fountain type of water supply is usually 
very satisfactory. An inexpensive one can be made by 
driving a nail-hole on the side and one inch from the top of 
an empty can. When this is filled with water and inverted 
in a pan somewhat larger around than the can and two 
inches deep, one has a satisfactory fountain. The water 
will flow out till the hole is covered, when it will stop until 
the water falls below the level of the hole again. 

Chickens and all other animals, like plants, must have 
protein, carbohydrate, and mineral foods in order to thrive, 
hence the flock should have a mixed diet. When poultry 
can find plenty of bugs and worms, these supply the needed 
protein, but when enough protein is not supplied in this 
way then it must be provided in some other form, such as 
skimmed milk, cotton-seed meal, meat scrap, beans, peas, 
clover, or alfalfa. If hens are fed corn and milo alone, they 
get too much carbohydrate and not enough protein, and 
hence become too fat and lay few eggs. Hens must have 
protein in order to lay eggs, but too much protein causes in- 
digestion. The ration must be properly balanced to keep 
up the energy and animal heat of the hen and at the same 
time produce eggs. Poultry must also have green food in 
order to promote health and appetite. If this is not supplied 
plentifully by the natural range, then green food must be 
produced and fed to them. Good range for poultry can be 
provided in winter and early spring by growing oats, barley, 
wheat, clover, or alfalfa; in late spring and summer by 
clovers, peas, millet, and sudan. 



POULTRY 405 

Ratio?} for Egg Production. The Agricultural and Me- 
chanical College of Texas recommends the following ration 
for laying hens: 

Grain 

Whole Corn 40 lbs. 

Whole Milo 30 lbs. 

Barley 30 lbs. 

Mash 

Wheat Bran 10 lbs. 

Wheat Shorts 20 lbs. 

Corn Meal 25 lbs. 

Ground Milo 25 lbs. 

Meat Scraps 20 lbs. 

The grain should be fed in a deep litter, giving a light 
meal in the morning to sharpen their appetites and start 
them to work, and allowing them all they will eat late in 
the day in order to send them to roost with a full crop. The 
dry mash should be kept in hoppers or protected pans all 
day long and the chickens encouraged to eat all that they 
will, as this is the part of the ration most important in pro- 
ducing eggs. In addition to the food ration, poultry should 
be supplied with slaked lime or oyster-shell in order to pro- 
duce good shells for their eggs. They must also have access 
to grit. The chicken has no teeth. Swallowing its food 
whole, it must therefore crush it by rolling it around in its 
gizzard and grinding it with the gravel kept there for that 
purpose. If sharp grit is not supplied, the flock will surely 
suffer from indigestion. 

Food Needed per Hen j^er Year. In the Texas National 
Egg Laying Contest held at the Agricultural and Mechan- 
ical College in 1920-21 it was shown that a good Leghorn 



406 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

hen will consume 32 pounds of grain and 34 pounds of 
mash in producing 138 eggs per year. Barred Plymouth 
Rocks ate on the average 39 pounds of grain and 42 pounds 
of mash in producing 145 eggs per year. The 532 hens in 
the contest ate on the average 6.96 pounds of feed for each 
dozen eggs consumed. The amount of grain and mash con- 
sumed by a flock would, of course, vary with the amount 
and quality of range provided. 

307. Setting a Hen and Handling Little Chicks. — Always 
choose for setting a quiet, motherly hen, not heavily feath- 
ered. Make sure that she is free of lice and all vermin. 
Watch the hen, and if vermin appear, dust her thoroughly 
with a good lice powder, repeat in six days and again about 
three days before the eggs are due to hatch. Place the nest 
on the ground in a well-drained and protected place if prac- 
ticable. Never set a hen in an exposed box on the side of a 
wall, as the evaporation is so rapid that many dead chicks 
will result. If the nest must be in a box, then place fresh 
sod in the bottom and lay the nesting material on top of 
that. 

Chicks are hatched with enough egg yolk in them to pro- 
vide all the food they need for two or three days. It is 
therefore best to let the chick rest and sleep at first and to 
feed it very little for the first three days. Sour milk is the 
best first food. When the chicks are three days old and are 
active and hungry, feed them more, giving either common 
corn bread thoroughly baked, dry, and ground fine or equal 
parts of dried bread crumbs and rolled oats mixed with 10 
per cent of hard boiled eggs. Feed five times a day for five 
days and give at each time only what the chicks will clean 



POULTRY 



407 



up quickly. Feed only perfectly fresh, sound food and allow 
none to lie around the chicks and mould. If mouldy food 
is eaten it will quickly kill the brood. Grit, shell, and char- 
coal should be kept where the chicks can get them whenever 
they want them. Green food must also be provided if it is 
not supplied by the range. 

Where very large numbers of hens are kept, it is econom- 
ical to use incubators and mechanical brooders in hatching 
the eggs and caring for the chicks. Those who wish to learn 
about this can do so from the bulletins to which you are 
referred. 



J of ciyr/tr/ft 




Fig. 233. A model chicken-house. 
Courtesy of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



308. The Chicken-House. — The chicken-house should be 
located on a slightly rolling place, well drained. A sandy 
loam soil is the best. While expensive poultry-houses are 



408 FUNDAMENTALS OF FAKMING 

not necessary, there is real need for a house to protect 
chickens from sudden and often severe changes in tempera- 
ture and weather. Allow at least three square feet of floor 
space per bird. The house needs especially good ventilation, 
yet the birds must not be exposed to drafts. The north and 
west sides should be completely closed, but there should be 
much open space on the east and south walls. These spaces 
should be covered with netting tight enough to keep out 
birds and varmints, and should be provided with means of 
covering them temporarily during extremely bad weather. 
Arrange to have as much light and sunshine in the house as 
possible. Attach nests and feed-hoppers to the walls where 
they can be easily reached, leaving the floor free. The floor 
should be of cement or sand, raised above the level of the 
surrounding earth. Roosts should be smooth and movable, 
with planks to catch droppings placed about ten inches 
below them. Figure 233 shows a standard plan for a chicken- 
house. The house must be kept clean and dry and free of 
vermin if the chickens are to thrive. 

309. Protect Poultry from Insects. — Fowls must be pro- 
tected from insect pests. A plentiful supply of dry road 
dust or coal ashes kept in a box in the corner of the fowl- 
house will help the fowls in their natural method of suffo- 
cating insects. This, however, is not always sufficient. The 
house, roosts, and everything in it should be, as often as 
necessary, whitewashed or sprayed with kerosene, kerosene 
emulsion, or other good spray in order to kill off mites, lice, 
and other pests. Nests should be cleaned out, straw burned, 
and the whole nest sprayed. Whenever necessary the fowls 
should be dusted with insect powder. Commercial sodium 



POULTRY 409 

fluorid is an excellent dusting material. Another good, in- 
expensive insect powder is made by moistening plaster of 
paris with a mixture of three parts of gasoline to one part of 
crude carbolic acid. The resulting brown powder should be 
dusted into the feathers thoroughly. By the use of these 
and other means that can be found in the bulletins referred 
to the returns from poultry can be made much greater and 
more certain. Poultry cannot thrive if infested with vermin. 

310. Breeds of Chickens. — ^The American Standard of 
Perfection, the accepted authority on chickens, recognizes 
now forty-five standard breeds of chickens. Hundreds of 
others exist but are not yet recognized as standard. Only a 
few of the most important breeds can be mentioned here. 
There are four general types of chickens: the egg type, the 
meat type, the general purpose type, and the ornamental 
type. 

The Egg Type. The Leghorns and Minorcas from the 
Mediterranean district are the best-known egg-laying 
breeds. They are too small and thin to be profitable to raise 
for meat. These all have smooth shanks, bright eyes, red 
combs, medium long bodies, and are very active and nervous. 

The Meat Type. The Asiatic breeds, the Brama, Cochin, 
and Langshan, are the leaders of the meat type. They are 
poor layers, but make large, tender, plump, rapid-growing 
market fowls. They are large and sluggish, with feathers 
on their shanks. 

The General- Purpose Type. The American Plymouth 
P.ock, Wyandotte, and Rhode Island Red, and the Opping- 
ton are the best representatives of this class. They are ex- 
cellent layers and are also lar^e and early maturing enough 



410 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

to produce economically the highest quality of market fowl. 

The Ornamental Type includes such breeds as the ban- 
tams and games. 

All these breeds are raised in this section, but the egg 
type and general-purpose type are justly the favorites. The 
heavy, sluggish meat breeds, with feathers on their shanks, 
are not well suited to southern conditions and climate. 

311. Turkeys, Ducks, Guineas, and Geese. — ^These fowls 
should receive much greater attention on the farm than they 
do. The turkey and guinea are especially valuable insect 
destroyers and the duck and goose are grass-eating fowls. 
You can learn about these in the study of your references. 

312. How to Market Eggs and Poultry, and How to Keep 
Eggs Fresh. — Eggs evaporate after being laid, are quickly 
affected by odors, and in all cases deteriorate with age. In 
warm weather the deterioration is very rapid. They should 
be gathered as soon as possible after being laid, and put in a 
cool place. If soiled, they should be wiped off at once with 
a wet cloth. Grade the eggs according to size and color 
and market them as soon as practicable. • People pay more 
for fresh, uniformly graded, and clean eggs, especially if 
they are packed in neat egg cartons. 

Preserving Eggs. The best method of preserving eggs 
during the period of flush production for use later is to mix 
one part of water glass, which is not expensive and may be 
bought at any good drug-store, with ten parts of boiled rain 
water that has been cooled. Place this mixture in a glass or 
glazed earthenware jar, set the jar in a cool place, and each 
day place in it, small ends down, perfectly fresh, clean eggs. 
It is better if the eggs have been made infertile, by having 



POULTRY 411 

all roosters removed from the flock during the time in which 
eggs are being preserved and for two weeks before. 



REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING 

"Poultry Keeping," Harry R. Lewis. 

''American Standard of Perfection," by American Pouhry Association. 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

Nos. 806, 898, 1052, 125L On standard varieties of chickens. 

No. 236. "Incubation and Incubators." 

No. 624. "Natural and Artificial Brooding of Chickens." 

No. 64. "Ducks and Geese." 

No. 234. "The Guinea Fowl." 

No. 79L "Turkey Raising." 

No. 1067. "Feeding for Egg Production." 

No. 1105. "Care of Mature Fowls." 

No. 1110. "Lice, Mites, and Cleanliness." 

No. 1113. "Poultry Houses." 

No. 1115. "Selection and Prej^aration for Exhibitions." 

Texas Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletins: 
No. 206. "Poultry Feed and Feeding Results." 
No. 207. "Poultry Houses and Equipment." 
No. 220. "Egg Producing Value of Texas Feeding Stuffs." 
No. 246. "Report of First Texas National Egg Laying Contest." 

The Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas Extension Service 
Bulletin: 

No. B-10. "Poultry in Texas." 
The University of Texas Extension Bulletin: 

No. 66. "Poultry on the Farm." 



CHAPTER XVIII 
THE CARE AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS 

313. How Animals Use Food. — The animal uses food in 
two general ways : first, to build up the body and repair used- 
up tissue; second, to furnish energy for the production of 
heat and motion. In the first, the animal acts very similarly 
to a plant, only instead of taking in crude food-material from 
the soil and air, and first manufacturing foods and then mak- 
ing tissue from these, the animal takes in the ready-made 
foods provided by the plants and turns these into flesh, bone, 
milk, wool, or other products. In the production of energy 
the animal acts similarly to an engine, only instead of burn- 
ing crude coal in a fire-box by admitting the oxygen of the 
air, the animal burns the foods and its own tissue by means 
of the oxygen admitted to the body through the lungs. Just 
as the growth of the plant is dependent upon the amount and 
kinds of food materials supplied, and the energy of the engine 
is limited to the fuel and oxygen used in the fire-box, so the 
growth and working capacity of the animal are fixed by the 
amount and kinds of food and air supplied. We can see then 
that in addition to securing stock of good blood it is neces- 
sary to feed and care for them intelligently if the highest re- 
turns are to be obtained. Let us then see of what the animal 
body is composed, how its energy is produced, and how the 
necessary materials may be most economically supplied. 

314. Composition of Animal Bodies. — ^You will recall that 
plants are composed mainly of water, proteins, fats, and 

412 



THE CARE AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS 413 

carbohydrates, together with a Httle mineral matter. The 
bodies of animals contain these same substances, which the 
animals secure by eating and digesting plants or the tissues 
of other animals that have lived on plants. It is true that 
the carbohydrates are not found in the animals' tissues, nor 
are the other compounds there in the exact form that they 
are in plants. But the carbohydrates are used in the body 
either in making fats or in supplying energy. 

315. Water in the Animal Body. — The ordinary animal 
body is from forty-three to sixty-seven per cent water, which 
is in the blood, other fluids, and all tissues, even the bones. 
Water cannot be combined with carbon dioxide in the animal 
body to form carbohydrates as it can in plants, but it is very 
important in many ways, helping to dissolve and carry around 
the foods and to carry out the waste materials. A plentiful 
supply of clean, palatable water is therefore the first essential 
of good feeding. A considerable part of this water is sup- 
plied in the green foods eaten. Green foods not only supply 
water, but also increase the digestibility of other foods with 
which they are eaten, because of being "appetizing." 

316. Protein in the Animal Body. — Protein is used by 
the animal chiefly in making lean meat, blood, tendons, skin, 
hair, hoofs, feathers, eggs, and milk curds. Nothing else can 
take the place of protein for these purposes. It may also be 
used to some extent to supply energy and heat, which are, 
however, mainly and more economically supplied by the 
fats and carbohydrates. From this it is plain that all grow- 
ing animals, working animals, milk cows, laying hens, geese 
that are growing feathers, sheep or goats growing wool must 
have a plentiful supply of protein in their food, whereas rest- 
ing adult animals or fattening animals do not need so much 



414 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

protein or nitrogenous (nl troj'e nus) food. This protein is 
found to some extent in practically all parts of all plants fed 
to stock, but in some, such as corn, Kafir corn, sorghum, and 
prairie hay, the proportion of protein is so small that these 
should be supplemented by some other food containing a 
higher per cent of protein. Wheat, bran, and shorts, cotton- 
seed meal, beans, peas, and other legumes and alfalfa leaves 
are rich in protein and make good nitrogenous material to 
mix with the carbonaceous (kar bo na'shus) foods, or those 
containing mainly carbohydrates and fats. 

317. The Use of Carbohydrates and Fat by Animals. — 
Animals neither manufacture carbohydrates in the body nor 
store them as do plants, nor is the fat which is stored by the 
animal exactly the same as that in the plant. The animal, 
however, uses the plant fats and carbohydrates in the pro- 
duction both of animal fat and of heat and energy. The 
carbohydrates, being rich in carbon, furnish a much more 
economical material than protein for producing heat and 
energy by being burned in the body. The fats are even 
greater energy producers, one pound of fat being equal to 
two and one-fourth pounds of carbohydrates. The animal 
fat may accumulate in the body far beyond the present 
needs and be stored for future use. The amount of fat 
stored within the body depends upon the animal, the age, the 
work being done, and the food supplied. Animals hard at 
work or exposed to excessive cold have to use up the fat to 
supply energy and heat. The amount of fat in the body 
varies from five per cent to thirty per cent of the body 
weight. 

Carbohydrates are present in all plants in the form of 
starch and sugar and of crude fibre. Sugar and starch are 



THE CARE AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS 



415 



easy to digest and high in nutritive value; the fibre is hard 
to digest and low in nutritive value. Corn, Kafir corn, milo, 
rice polish, and molasses are especially rich in digestible 
carbohydrates. Fat is not so widely and plentifully dis- 

SOURCES o. SUPPLY -o. jhe VEGETABLE -«> ANIMAL 
SOURCES MINERAL VEGETABLE 



Air 
Wal-er 




MINERAL 

Carbon 

Hydrogen 

Oxygen 



Nitrogen 




Carbohydrates 
and 
Fats 



ANIMAL 

Heat 
— ►-( Energy 
Fat 



Proteins —^ Lean Meat 




•Bone 



Potassium 

Sodium 

Calcium 

Sulphur 

Magnesium 

iRon 

Phosphorus 

Fig. 234. For the sake of clearness certain details are omitted in the above 
diagram. For example, bone has some other matter in it besides ash, and pro- 
tein has in it some of the elements in the lower group of minerals. The diagram 
is in general correct and affords a good summary to keep in mind. 



tributed as the carbohydrates, though all plants contain a 
little. Pea-nuts, cotton-seed, and soy-beans are especially 
rich in fat. 

318. Mineral Matter in Animals. — ]\Iineral matter is 
found in all parts of the animal — in the blood, digestive fluids, 
and protoplasm, as well as in the bones. From two to five 
per cent of the animal body is mineral. These minerals are 
also in all plants, and are usually obtained by animals in suf- 
ficient quantities from any ordinary food. On a highly con- 
centrated ration given to penned pigs or chickens there may 
be a deficiency of mineral matter, which is usually suppUed 



416 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

to the pig in the form of ashes, and to the ehicken in the form 
of shell or cut bone. 

319. Air, Shelter, Exercise, Rest, and Kind Treatment. — 
We have seen that all energy, even that by which the heart 
beats, the lungs expand and contract, the digestive system 
works, and other internal bodily activities are carried on, 
comes from the combination of oxygen with the compounds 
in the bod}'. For this and other reasons a plentiful supply 
of fresh air through well- ventilated stables is essential to the 
highest success in stock-raising. On the other hand, cold 
draughts are dangerous, while standing out in the open 
through cold and stormy weather is injurious and uses up 
food for heat that should go toward flesh and energy produc- 
tion. Properly constructed stables and sheds, therefore, 
should be provided, having clean, dry beds so that animals 
may lie down and rest in comfort. It has been proved that 
a steer gives off from thirty to fifty per cent more heat when 
standing than when lying down, showing the increased 
amount of energy consumed in maintaining a standing po- 
sition. A well-ventilated, comfortable shelter for stock, 
therefore, quickly pays for itself. 

Animals differ from the engine in having a digestive sys- 
tem and assimilating powers by means of which they are able 
to repair the wear and tear of their own parts. They differ 
also in having minds that influence the activity of their di- 
gestive systems. Therefore all animals must be given exer- 
cise to improve appetite and digestion and to stir up the 
circulation of the blood, which helps to build new tissue and 
to carry off waste material from the body. They must 
likewise be given rest always before wear of the tissues is too 
great to be easily replaced. They must have kind treat- 



THE CARE AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS 417 

ment, as the digestive system and other bodily organs do 
not work so well when animals are irritated and abused. 
320. Proportion of Concentrates to Roughage in Rations. 

— A food, such as wheat or corn or cotton-seed meal, that 
contains a large per cent of nutriment is spoken of as a 
concentrate, whereas a coarse, rough food, such as hay or 
sorghum or fodder, that contains a comparatively small 
per cent of nutriment is called a roughage. The proportion 
of concentrates to roughage in the rations of animals varies 
greatly, and depends upon the class of animals fed, the pur- 
pose in view, and the character of the feed. Roughage, being 
generally cheaper than concentrates, should be utilized as 
much as the demands of the particular animal will allow. 
Generally speaking, growing stock, stock kept for breeding 
purposes, and idle horses may be given much the greater 
portion of their food in roughage. Fattening cattle usually 
give the best returns when the amount of concentrates in the 
ration is almost double the amount of roughage. On the 
other hand, dairy cattle generally produce milk most eco- 
nomically when the amount of roughage is about twice the 
amount of concentrates. Fattening sheep do best usually 
when roughage constitutes a little less than half of the ration 
and concentrates the remaining portion. Horses doing hard 
work require a ration of more than half concentrates, whereas 
horses doing light work may get along well on a ration made 
up chiefly of roughage of good quality. Many people allow 
horses all the roughage they will eat. This is not wise, as 
animals will overeat just as people do. The horse does not 
have a large stomach, hence feeding over twelve or fifteen 
pounds of hay to an average horse does harm instead of good. 
Owing to the nature of the hog's digestive system this animal 



418 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

cannot utilize much coarse, bulky material, and therefore its 
ration must be made up practically altogether of concentrates. 
However, hogs may utilize advantageously tender green 
forage plants. 

321. Diet Should Be Varied and Mixed. — It is always 
best to vary the diet from time to time, and to feed a mixed 
ration, as experience has shown that good flavor and variety 
improve the appetite and digestion of stock as well as of man. 
The daily ration should contain part roughage, part concen- 
trates, and part green succulent food. It is highly desirable 
that a portion of succulent or juicy food, either grass, fresh 
green crops, silage, turnips, or other root crops, be used all 
the time. 

322. The Basis for Calculating Animal Rations. — By 
careful chemical analyses it has been found just how much 
each ordinary foodstuff contains of these veral nutrients 
(nu'tri ents), as the proteids, fats, and other materials that 
give nourishment are called. By repeated experiments it 
has also been found how much of each of these nutrients 
animals of different kinds and sizes need per day to supply 
their wants. The results of these analyses and experiments 
are given in Tables I and II. From these tables one can 
calculate for any animal the amount of each kind of foodstuff 
that should go into its ration, as the amount of food given 
in one day is called. A ration that contains the nutrients 
in such proportion and amounts as will meet, without excess 
of any nutrient, the full requirements of the animal is called 
a balanced ration. It is very important that animals be fed 
a balanced ration. If the ration is not balanced because of 
a lack of sufficient quantity of some nutrient, then the animal 
will be undernourished. It will not grow properly or will 



THE CARE AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS 



419 



TABLE I.— AMOUNTS OF DRY MATTER AND DIGESTIBLE 
NUTRIENTS IN COMMON FOODSTUFFS 

A modification of a table in Henry's " Feeds and Feedings " 



CONCENTRATES 



Dent com 

Corn and cob meal 

Kafir corn 

Ground Kafir-corn heads . 

Milo-maize seed 

Ground milo-maize heads. 

Oats 

Wheat 

Wheat bran. 

Wheat shorts 

Barley 

Rice 

Rice polish 

Rice bran 

Cotton-seed 

Cotton-seed meal 

Dried brewers' grains .... 

Wet brewers' grains 

Cow's milk 

Skim milk 

Cow-pea 

Soy-bean 

Tankage 



ROUGHAGES 

Cotton-seed hulls , 

Corn stover , 

Bermuda-grass hay 

Johnson-grass hay 

Oat hay 

Prairie-grass hay 

Sorghum hay 

Cow-pea hay 

Alfalfa hay 

Oat straw 

Corn silage 

Sorghum silage 

Sweet potato 

Common beet 

Mangel 

Flat turnip 

Rutabaga 



TOTAL 

DRY 

MATTER 

IN 

1 LB. 



.894 
.849 
.901 
.864 
.910 
.903 
.896 
.895 
.881 
.888 
.892 
.876 
.892 
.903 
.897 
.930 
.913 
.230 
.128 
.094 
.854 
.883 
.930 



.889 
.595 
.929 
.898 
.860 
.908 
.914 
.895 
.919 
.908 
.264 
.239 
.289 
.115 
.091 
.099 
.114 



DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS 
IN 1 LB. 



CRUDE 
PRO- 
TEIN 



.078 

.044 
.052 
.042 
.049 
.042 
.088 
.088 
.119 
.130 
.084 
.064 
.079 
.076 
.125 
.376 
.200 
.049 
.034 
.029 
.168 
.291 
.501 



.003 
.014 
.064 
.029 
.047 
.030 
.039 
.092 
.105 
.013 
.014 
.001 
.008 
.012 
.010 
.009 
.010 



CAR- 
BOHY- 
DRATES 



.668 
.600 

.443 

.424 
.448 
,450 
.492 
.675 
.420 
.457 
.653 
.792 
.586 
.388 
.300 
.214 
.322 
.094 
.048 
.053 
.549 
.233 



.332 
.312 
.449 
.456 
.367 
.429 
.441 
.393 
.405 
.395 
.142 
.135 
.229 
.079 
.055 
.064 
.081 



.043 
.029 
.014 
.012 
.013 
.011 
.043 
.015 
.025 
.045 
.016 
.004 
.053 
.073 
.173 
.096 
.060 
.017 
.037 
.003 
.011 
.146 
.116 



.017 

.007 

.016 

.008 

.017 

.016 

.022* 

.013 

.009 

.008 

.007 

.002 

.003 

.001 

.002 

.001 

.002 



* Determined by Texas Experiment Station. 



420 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FAKMING 



TABLE II.— AMOUNTS OF FOOD REQUIRED PER DAY BY 
VARIOUS ANIMALS PER 1,000 POUNDS OF LIVE WEIGHT 

From Henry's " Feeds and Feeding " 



1. Oxen 

At rest in stall 

At light work 

At medium work 

At heavy work , 

2. Fattening cattle 

First period , 

Second period 

Third period 

3. Milch cows when yielding daily 

11.0 pounds of milk 

16.6 pounds of milk 

22.0 pounds of milk 

27.5 pounds of milk 

4. Sheep 

Coarse-wool 

Fine-wool 

5. Breeding ewes 

With lambs 

6. Fattening sheep 

First period 

Second period 

7. Horses 

Light work 

Medium work 

Heavy work 

8. Brood sows 

9. Fattening swine 

First period 

Second period 

Third period 



PER DAY PER 1,000 LBS. LIVE WEIGHT 



DRY 
MATTER 



30 
30 

26 



27 
29 
32 



30 



20 
24 
26 



DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS 



CRUDE 
PRO- 
TEIN 



LBS. 

0.7 
1.4 
2.0 

2.8 



2.5 
3.0 

2.7 



1.6 
2.0 
2.5 
3.3 



1.2 
1.5 



2.9 



3.0 
3.5 



1.5 
2.0 
2.5 

2.5 



4.5 
4.0 

2.7 



CAR- 
BOHY- 
DRATES 



LBS. 

8.0 
10.0 
11.5 
13.0 



15.0 
14.5 
15.0 



10.0 
11.0 
13.0 
13.0 



10.5 
12.0 



15.0 



15.0 
14.5 



9.5 
11.0 
13.3 

15.5 



25.0 
24.0 
18.0 



LBS. 

0.1 
0.3 
0.5 
0.8 



0.5 

0.7 
0.7 



0.3 
0.4 
0.5 
0.8 



0.2 
0.3 



0.5 



0.5 
0.6 



0.4 
0.6 
0.8 

0.4 



0.7 
0.5 
0.4 



NUTRI- 
TIVE 
RATIO 1 



11.8 

7.7 
6.5 
5.3 



6.5 
5.4 
6.2 



6.7 
6.0 
5.7 
4.5 



9.1 

8.5 



5.6 



5.4 
4.5 



7.0 
6.2 
6.0 



5.9 
6.3 
7.0 



THE CARE AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS 



421 



TABLE II.— AMOUNTS OF FOOD- REQUIRED PER DAY BY 
VARIOUS ANIMALS PER 1,000 POUNDS OF LIVE WEIGHT 

(Continued) 



10. Growing cattle, dairy breeds 

AGE IN AV. LIVE WT. 

MONTHS PER HEAD, LBS. 

2-3 150 

3-6 300 

6-12 500 

12-18 700 

18-24 900 

11. Growing cattle, beef breeds 

2-3 160 

3-6 330 

6-12 550 

12-18 750 

18-24 950 

12. Growing sheep, wool breeds 

4-6 60 

6-8. 75 

8-11 80 

11-15 90 

15-20 100 

13. Growing sheep, mutton breeds 

4-6 60 

6-8 80 

8-11 100 

11-15 120 

15-20 150 

14. Growing swine, breeding stock 

2-3 50 

3-5 100 

5-6 120 

6-8 200 

8-12 250 

15. Growing fattening swine 

2-3 50 

3-5 100 

5-6 150 

6-8 200 

9-12 300 



PER DAY PER 1,000 LBS. LIVE WEIGHT 



DRY 
MATTER 



23 
24 
27 
26 
26 



23 
24 
25 
24 
24 



25 
25 
23 
22 

22 



26 
26 
24 
23 
22 



44 
35 
32 
28 
25 



44 
35 
33 
30 
26 



DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS 



CRUDE 
PRO- 
TEIN 



4.0 
3.0 

2.0 
1.8 
1.5 



4.2 
3.5 
2.5 
2.0 

1.8 



3.4 
2.8 
2.1 

1.8 
1.5 



4.4 
3.5 
3.0 
2.2 
2.0 



7.6 
4.8 
3.7 
2.8 
2.1 



7.6 
5.0 
4.3 
3.6 
3.0 



CAR- 
BOHY- 
DRATES 



LBS. 
13.0 

12.8 
12.5 
12.5 
12.0 



13.0 
12.8 
13.2 
12.5 
12.0 



15.4 
13.8 
11.5 
11.2 
10.8 



15.5 
15.0 
14.3 
12.6 
12.0 



28.0 
22.5 
21.3 
18.7 
15.3 



28.0 
23.1 
22.3 
20.5 
18.3 



LBS. 

2.0 
'l.O 
0.5 
0.4 
0.3 



2.0 
1.5 
0.7 
0.5 
0.4 



0.7 
0.6 
0.5 
0.4 
0.3 



0.9 
0.7 
0.5 
0.5 
0.4 



1.0 
0.7 
0.4 
0.3 
0.2 



1.0 
0.8 
0.6 
0.4 
0.3 



NUTRI- 
TIVE 
RATIO 1 



4.5 

5.1 

6.8 
7.5 

8.5 



4.2 
4.7 
6.0 

6.8 

7.2 



5.0 
5.4 
6.0 
7.0 

7.7 



4.0 
4.8 
5.2 
6.3 
6.5 



4.0 
5.0 
6.0 
7.0 
7.5 



4.0 
5.0 
5.5 
6.0 
6.4 



422 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

not be able to do as much work as it should. If the ration 
is not balanced because of an excess of some nutrient, then 
food is being wasted, and often the animal is injured, as the 
excess puts a needless strain on the digestive system. The 
basis, then, of successful and economical stock-feeding lies in 
using a balanced ration. This ration would naturally differ 
with different animals and with the same animal under 
different conditions. Working and growing animals need a 
larger proportion of proteids, whereas fattening animals need 
a larger proportion of carbohydrates and fat. Let us now 
see how to calculate a balanced ration. 

323. How to Calculate a Balanced Ration.— Suppose that 
we need a ration for a 900-pound dairy cow giving 22 pounds 
of milk per day, and the foodstuffs on hand are cotton-seed 
meal, corn, sorghum hay, and cow-pea hay. By consulting 
Table II we find that such a cow weighing 1,000 pounds needs 
29 pounds of dry matter, 2.5 pounds of digestible protein, 
13 pounds of digestible carbohydrates, and .5 pound of fat. 
A cow weighing 900 pounds will therefore need nine-tenths 
of this, or: dry matter, 26.1; protein, 2.25; carbohydrates, 
11.7; fat, .45. There are several combinations of the mate- 
rials at hand that would give these amounts of nutrients. 
The best plan is to take first as a trial ration the amounts 
that you would judge to be about right; then calculate 
from the table the amounts of nutrients in that ration and 
correct deficiencies or excesses of any nutrient by additions 
or changes until the ration practically agrees with the re- 
quirements. As all dried foodstuffs have about ten per cent 
of water in them we shall need ten per cent more than 26.1 
pounds, or 29 pounds, in order to get the 26.1 pounds of dry 
matter. This 29 pounds should consist of about 9 pounds 



THE CARE AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS 



423 



of concentrates and 20 pounds of roughage, though these 
need not be exact, provided the proper amount of each 
nutrient is present. Let us use for the first trial ration 9 
pounds of corn, 10 pounds of sorghum hay, and 10 pounds 
of cow-pea hay, and see how much of each nutrient that 
would give. Referring to Table I we find the amounts of 
nutrients in each of these foods and multiplying the amount 
in 1 pound by the number of pounds used we get the follow- 
ing: 





PROTEIN 


CARBO- ^ 
HYDRATE 


FAT 


9 lbs. corn= 

9 X .078 lbs. protein 

9 X .668 lbs. carbohydrate 

9 X .043 lbs. fat 

10 lbs. sorghum hay = 

10 X .039 lbs. protein 

10 X .441 lbs. carbohydrate = 
10x.022Jbs. fat 

10 lbs. cow-pea hay = 

10 X .092 lbs. protein 

10 X .393 lbs. carbohydrate = 

10 X. 013 lbs. fat 


.702 






6.012 


'.387 ' 


.390 





4.410 


'.22b" ' 


.920 




3.930 


.130' ' 






Total nutrients in the ration = 
Total demanded by the standard = 


2.012 
2.25 


14.352 
11.7 


.737 
.45 



Comparing the total nutrients found in the trial ration 
with the standard ration we find .24 pound less of protein 
than is required, 2.65 pounds more of carbohydrates and 
.287 pound more fat than are required. In order to meet 
the requirements we must either increase the amount of 



424 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



cow-pea hay to supply more protein and decrease the amount 
of sorghum hay to decrease the amount of carbohydrates and 
fat, or we must decrease the amount of corn to reduce the 
carbohydrates and add some cotton-seed meal to increase the 
protein. Let us next try this: 6 pounds of corn, 10 pourds 
of sorghum hay. 10 pounds of cow-pea hay, and H pounds of 
cotton-seed meal. Referring again to Table I we get the fol- 
lowing : 



( 


PROTEIN 


CARBO- 
HYDRATE 


FAT 


G lbs. corn = 

6 X .078 lbs. protein 

6 X .668 lbs. carbohydrate 

6 X .043 lbs. fat 

10 lbs. sorghum hay = 

10 X .039 lbs. protein 

10 X .441 lbs. carbohydrate = 

10x.022 1bs. fat 

10 lbs. cow-pea hay = 

10 x .092 lbs. protein 

10 x .393 lbs. carbohydrate 

10 x .013 lbs. fat 

1.5 lbs. cotton-seed meal = 

1.5 X .376 lbs. protein = 
1.5 X .214 lbs. carbohydrate = 
1.5x.096 1bs. fat 


.468 






4.008 


'.258° ' 


.390 




4.410 


'.220 ■ 


.920 





3.930 


'.130' ■ 


.564 




.321 


'.144 






Total nutrients in the ration = 
Total required by the standard = 

Differences = 


2.342 
2.25 


12.669 
11.700 


.752 
.45 


.092 


.969 


.302 j 



This ration still does not meet the exact requirements, but 
IS close enough to it for practical purposes. Of course, the 



THE CARE AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS 425 

exact ration could be obtained in a few more trials, but such 
exactness is not necessary, as the standards are not them- 
selves absolutely exact. There are differences in the diges- 
tive powers and demands of animals of the same weight, and 
there are slight differences in the composition of hays and 
other foodstuffs when grown under different conditions, so 
that perfectly exact fitting to the standard is not required. 
The standards, however, fit the ordinary animal closely 
enough for practical purposes, and should always be con- 
sidered in feeding animals. Following the plan shown above 
you should now calculate rations for several different animals. 
Rule your note-book and write out everything just as it is 
done above. This seems quite complicated at first, but after 
a few examples it becomes easy. At first it is best to make 
a ration out of only three foodstuffs, as that is simpler. 



QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES 

198. Draw a plan of the barn lot, barn, and stock shed on your place, 

give a description of them and tell in what respects they are 
right and in what wrong. 

199. Make a plan for a barn lot, barn, and stock shed for your farm that 

meets the requirements indicated in this chapter. 

200. Weigh the rations given two different kinds of stock on your farm. 

Calculate the nutrients in these, and if they are not nearly in 
accord with the standards, prepare rations out of the foodstuffs 
used that are properly balanced. 

201. Try to plan another practical ration for these animals that will 

accomplish the same result at less expense. 

REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING 

''Feeds and Feeding," Henry and Morrison. 
"The Feeding of Animals," W. H. Jordan. 



426 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

No. 578. "Making and Feeding Silage." 

No. 655. ''Cottonseed Meal for Feeding Beef Cattle." 

No. 666. "Colts: Breaking and Training." 

No. 724. "Feeding of Grain Sorghums to Live Stock." 

No. 743. "The Feeding of Dairy Cows." 

No. 777. "Feeding and Management of Dairy Calves and Young 

Dairy Stock." 

No. 825. "Pit Silos." 

No. 855. "Homemade Silos." 

No. 873. "Utilization of Farm Wastes in Feeding Live Stock." 

No. 874. "Swine Management." 

No. 906. "The Self-Feeder for Hogs." 

No. 909. "Cattle Lice and How to Eradicate Them." 

No. 949. "Dehorning and Castration of Cattle." 

No. 954. "Disinfection of Stables." 

No. 972. "How to Use Sorghum Grain." 

No. 1030. "Feeding Horses." 

No. 1179. "Feeding Cottonseed Products to Live Stock." 

No. 1181. "Raising Sheep on Temporary Pastures." 

No. 1218. "Beef Production in the Corn Belt." 

No. 1229. "The Utilization of Alfalfa." 

The A. and M. College of Texas Extension Service Bulletins: 

No. B-39. "The Underground Silo." 

No. B-49. "Silo Construction." 

Texas Experiment Station Bulletins: 

No. 203. "The Productive Values of Some Texas Feeding Stuffs." 

No. 242. "Hardening of Pea-nut-Fed Hogs." 

No. 245. "Feeding Values of Certain Feeding Stuffs." 

No. 263. "Rations for Fattening Steers." 



f 



CHAPTER XIX 
FARM PLANNING AND ACCOUNTING 

Planning the Farm 

324. Most Farms Are Without Plan. — An examination 
of the farms in any community reveals the fact that but few 
of them have any well-marked-out plan along which to de- 
velop. Fields are irregular in size and shape, often incon- 
veniently arranged and located, necessitating much travel 
to get to them. Numerous corners in them render the fields 
difficult to cultivate, and make the full utilization of the land 
impossible. Irregularity in size of the different fields in- 
creases the difficulties encountered in planning satisfactory 
cropping and rotation systems. Buildings and fences are 
improperly located, thus interfering with economy in operat- 
ing the farm. Regard does not seem to have been given to 
the location of roads, lanes, runs, and pastures for stock. The 
orchard and the garden seem to have been located by chance, 
rather than in accord with any well- thought design. 

325. Plan for Economy in Operation. — Good plans will 
save time and labor and allow the best and most economical 
use of equipment and the most complete and profitable 
utilization of the land. Plan to avoid unnecessary fences 
and field divisions. The dividing of tillable land into small 
fields is extravagant of fencing, wasteful of land and of labor 
and time in cultivating. To fence a square field of two and 
a half acres requires eighty rods of fencing. Allowing a strip 

427 



428 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 



six feet wide around the field immediately inside the fence 
for turning uses up seven thousand seven hundred and 
seventy-six square feet, or seven and fifteen one hundredths 




CORN.FORAGE 

AND OTHER 

CR0P5 



ROAD 



Fig. 235. A 1 60-acre farm with poor plan of fields and poor cropping system. 
1, dwelling; 2, barn; 3, tenant-houses. 



per cent of the field. To fence a square field of ten acres 
calls for only twice the amount of fencing necessary for the 
two-and-a-half-acre field, while the land necessary for turning 
is only fifteen thousand nine hundred and ninety-six square 
feet, or three and sixty-seven one hundredths per cent of 



I 



FARM PLANNING AND ACCOUNTING 



429 



the field. The time consumed in turning in cultivating the 
two-and-one-half-acre field is twice as great in proportion to 
the area worked as in the ten-acre field. A forty-acre field 




FIELDS A.B.andC CULTIVATED IN 
THREE OR SIX YEAR ROTATION. 



ROAD 



Fig. 236. The same 160-acre farm replanned for systematic management. 
1, dwelling; 2, barn; 3, tenant-houses; 4, tool-house; 5, shed for calves and 
other young stock; H, yard and grove about house; I, orchard; J, garden; 
K, calf pasture; L, barn lot. 



would have a proportionately greater advantage over the 
ten-acre field. 

Long Fields permit of better use of machinery, teams, and 
labor in tillage than short ones, especially when rows are run 



430 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

only one way. In proportion to the area covered, there is 
just half as much time and land consumed in turning when 
rows are doubled in length. On a fairly smooth-lying farm 
when the fields are made rectangular instead of square, 
each may have an entrance comparatively close to the barn 
and house, thus rendering them more quickly accessible, 
saving time and travel in going to and from work. 

Uniformity in size of fields is desirable, especially when it 
is important that the income from crops remain constant 
from year to year. The planning of cropping systems then 
becomes simplified, and satisfactory rotations may be more 
easily carried out. Before deciding upon the number of 
cultivated fields there shall be on the farm, the rotation or 
cropping system must be considered. For a three-year rota- 
tion three fields are sufficient. For a longer rotation more 
fields are desirable, or the larger ones may be divided between 
two or more crops. Each of the cultivated fields should be 
accessible either through a lane or pasture, so that teams 
may enter and crops be removed without going over crops 
growing in the other fields. 

326. The Pasture. — Work stock render better service and 
last longer if they have a good pasture in which to graze 
while not at work. A good pasture affords the very best and 
cheapest food for live-stock, minimizes the danger from loss 
of hogs from disease, and reduces the cost of every pound 
of pork produced. On all general-purpose farms the past- 
ure is an essential to good management. It may perhaps 
be dispensed with on some of the smaller places where truck 
and orchard farming are followed exclusively. The pasture 
should be within easy reach of the farm, should be so ar- 
ranged that it can be divided into two or more fields to avoid 



FARM PLANNING AND ACCOUNTING 431 

the necessity of different kinds of stock being together at 
times when one is hable to interfere with the welfare of the 
other. Hogs and cows with young calves will often be sub- 
jected to much annoyance by mules and by some horses. 
The pasture does not require frequent cultivation, and may 
therefore be on land somewhat uneven. It should have 
shade enough to give stock ample protection from storms 
and the heat of the sun. Beyond this Hmit, trees may be- 
come a disadvantage. Good, strong fences should surround 
every permanent pasture. Well-fenced pastures reduce the 
need of fences around other fields and on other p'arts of the 
farm. The pasture should be large enough to accommodate 
all the stock necessary on the farm. It should be so planted 
and handled as to furnish grazing during the entire growing 
period of the year. 

327. The Wood Lot. — It is well on the general cotton, 
grain, and live-stock farm to reserve land enough for a wood 
lot to give the annual fuel supply and from which material, 
such as posts, usually needed in keeping up the place may be 
cut. Lands unsuited to cultivation, such as rough areas, 
fields remote from the centre of the place, or those of doubt- 
ful value in producing regular crops, may be devoted to tim- 
ber-growing. Land set apart for woods should be made to 
grow trees of value. Others should be worked out. The 
timber lot should be so managed as to give some harvest each 
year. It is wise to exclude stock from the lot upon which 
new trees are being started. The timber lot should not be 
used as a pasture unless the lot is extensive in area and the 
number of stock to run in it is very limited. 

328. The Homestead. — ^The homestead should be con- 
venient to the main parts of the farm. It should be on a 



432 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

well-elevated site, convenient to roads and main lines of 
travel. The dwelling-house should be far enough from the 
public road for the inmates to escape the dust, annoyance, 
and noise due to travel, but not so far as to be inconvenient 
of approach. On a farm of one hundred and sixty acres or 
more, the house may be located from one hundred to two 
hundred yards from the road. On a smaller place, and espe- 
cially with a small house, it may be closer to the road. 

The Barn, the building second in importance on the farm, 
should be at a convenient distance in the rear of the house. 
There should be a number of trees between the house and 
the barn, both in order to cut off objectionable views and to 
serve as a protection of one building from the other in case 
of fire. The barn should be large enough to house the farm 
produce and furnish quarters for the stock. It can and 
should be of artistic design and good, durable construction 
without being excessively expensive. 

There should be a ivork-shop combined with a tool and im- 
plement shed or house. This building should be placed at a 
distance of at least one hundred feet from the barn and at a 
point easily accessible. 

Near the run for calves and other young stock there should 
be located quarters for young stock. This building calls for 
nothing expensive in structure, but should be substantially 
built. 

There should be a few well-planned poultry-houses, located 
at some distance from the barn and tool-house, planned with 
a view to sanitation. These buildings should be portable 
and may well be located in the orchard a part of the year. 

The hog-houses should be portable and located near to or 
in the hog pasture. At times they may be placed in the 



OUTLINE MAP OF FARM 

Designate each Jicld by a Idler and note acreage and crop hereon 



Fig. 237 Fac-simile of page in Farm Diary on which map of farm is drawn. 



434 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

fields and lots in which some special crops are being grown 
for the hogs. 

329. Tenant-Houses. — When the farm is larger than one 
family can work, provision should be made for tenant-houses. 
The location of these houses should receive more thought 
than is usually given such matters. Place them not too close 
to the barn, nor too far away. Usually they should be placed 
on the opposite side of the barn and lots from the cultivated 
fields. Make them comfortable, and give them a good coat 
of paint occasionally. Have a garden for each one. Atten- 
tion to such little details makes the places desirable and goes 
a great way toward solving the labor question. 



Farm Accounting 

330. The Simplest System. — Though it is not possible 
for us to make a complete study of farm accounting at this 
time, we will call attention to the simplest method as yet 
devised, which was prepared by the office of Farm Manage- 
ment, United States Department of Agriculture. 

331. The Farm Diary. — This is a book seven and three- 
quarter by nine and one-quarter inches in size, and con- 
tains, in addition to a page upon which the farmer draws the 
plan or outhne of his entire farm, a special page for every day 
in the year. Figure 237 is a fac-simile of the page upon which 
the plan or outline of the farm is drawn, and Figure 238 is 
a copy of the page upon which the farmer writes the daily 
notes upon work performed by men and teams. 

332. Explanation of Daily Notes. — A " man-hour " is one 
man's work for one hour, and a '' horse-hour " is one horse's 
work for one hour, so that if a man works from six o'clock 



FARM PLANNING AND ACCOUNTING 



435 



until eleven-thirty in the morning, and from one o'clock 
until six o'clock in the afternoon, he works ten and one-half 
" man-hours." If he uses two horses to a cultivator, his team 

WEDNESDAY, JUNE 5, 1912 







HOURS 1 




MAN 


HORSE 


6.00 to 11.30 A. M., John plowed field "A" 

6.00 to 11.30 A. M., I repaired fence around field "A" 
11.30 A. M. to 1.00 p. M., noon. 

1.00 *o 6.00 p. M., John plowed field "A" 

1.00 to 6.00 p. M., I planted cow-peas on oat-stubble in 
field "C" 


5i 
5^ 

5 

5 


11 

10 
10 


Weather: Cloudy, threatening rain. 
Jim returned from college to-day. 




RECEIVED 


PAID OUT 


Coke, Murphy Co., for 1 ton oat hay 

Smith & Jones, for 10 bu. Irish potatoes, at $1.25 
For 4 lbs butter at 35c 


$17.00 

12.50 

1.40 

1.00 








For 5 doz. eggs, at 20c . 




For 1 grade Jersey heifer, 6 mo. old 


$9.00 
16.85 


For groceries, as per bill of this date 








$31.90 


$25.85 



Fig. 238. Copy of daily page from Farm Diary. The page in the 
diarj^ is, of course, blank, and such matter as that printed above would 
be written in from day to day. 

has worked twice ten and one-half hours, or twenty-one 
"horse-hours." In addition to keeping an account of the 
work performed by men and teams, this page is also used 
for comments on the weather, the family, social events, etc. 
It will be observed that on June 5 the weather was cloudy 



436 



FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 
CORN ACCOUNT 



Year 19, 



ACRES 





DB. 


CR. 


Plowing, at per acre 






Harrowing, at per acre 






Harrowing, at per acre 






Disking twice, at per acre 






Planting, at per acre . . 






Seed-corn bushels, at per bushel . . . 






First cultivation, at per acre 






Second cultivation, at per acre 






Third cultivation, at ... . per acre 






Fourth cultivation, at per acre 






Hoeing, at per acre 






Commercial fertilizer, at per acre . . . 






Other fertilizer, at per acre . . . 






Harvesting, at per acre 






Cost of marketing 






Rent, at per acre 






Or interest on investment in land 






Interest on investment in equipment (teams, 
tools, machinery, etc.) 






Taxes 






Other items of expense, per acre 






Other items of expense, per acre 






Other items of expense, per acre 






Other items of expense, per acre 






Other items of expense, per acre 






Corn sold bushels, at per bushel. . . 

Corn kept for own use bushels, value .... 

per bushel 










Fodder sold 






Fodder kept for own use, value 






Silage tons at 






Totals 










Total profit (or loss), $ 






Profit (or loss) per acre, $ 













Note to teachers: The teacher should explain the outline of the corn- 
crop account in detail, having the pupils take assumed cost figures and 
make estimate upon the cost of an assumed corn crop. It is also ad- 
visable to make similar outlines for such crops as wheat, oats, cotton, 
Kafir, milo, sorghum, cow-peas, and alfalfa. 



FARM PLANNING AND ACCOUNTING 437 

and threatening rain, and that Jim, a son of the farmer, re- 
turned from college. At the bottom of the page is left 
space for making record of the daily receipts and expendi- 
tures, so that the farmer may know from time to time 
whether or not he is taking in more money than he is pay- 
ing out. 

If a farmer will keep this kind of record from day to day 
throughout the year, it will be very easy for him to know 
whether he is paying out more than he is taking in, and to 
figure out at the end of the season what it cost him to pro- 
duce each crop and how much he received from it. Similar 
records should be kept on the cost of producing live-stock. 

333. Crop Accounting. — In order to determine which of 
our crops are returning satisfactory profit, it is important 
that we keep an account of each crop grown on the farm. 
We must first determine the total cost of production, and 
after deducting that from the market value of the crop 
produced, we get the total profit. The outline on page 
434, prepared especially for the corn crop, shows how these 
crop accounts should be kept. With slight modification, it 
can be rearranged so as to be suitable for keeping record of 
the cost of any other crop. 

QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES 

202. With the help of the teacher and your parents fill in the blanks in 

the corn account and calculate the profit or loss on an assumed 
crop of corn. 

203. Make the changes necessary in the form shown for a corn account 

and calculate in the same way the profit or loss on a crop of peas 
and one of cotton. 

204. Plant a small crop of your own and keep an actual account, using 

the diary and crop-account forms. 



438 FUNDAMENTALS OF FARMING 

205. Draw a pl.in of your fjitlicr's farm sliiillar to Fijijuro 230, jiiul write 
a criticism, showing what is good and what not good in the plan, 
giving reasons in l)otli eases. 

200. Make an improved farm phin for your father's farm, and give your 
reasons for making such changes as you make. 



REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING 

"How to Keep Farm Accounts," H. L. Steiner. 
"The Farmstead," I. P. R()l)erts. 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

"Farm Bookkeeping." 

"System of Farm Cost Accounting." 

"The Use of a Diary for Farm Accounts." 

"Farm Household Accounts." 

"Selecting a Farm." 

"Planning the Farmstead." 

"Methods of Analyzing Farm Business." 

"Farm Inventories." 

Texas Experiment Station Bulletin : 

No. 204. "Farm Records and Accounts." 



No. 


511. 


No. 


572. 


No. 


782. 


No. 


904. 


No. 


10S8. 


No. 


1 132. 


No. 


1139. 


No. 


1182. 



APPENDIX I 

ROADS 

The Benefits of Good Roads. — It is difficult to make a list of all the 
benefits of good roads, but the following are among the most important: 

1. Good roads decrease the cost of hauling by enabling a team to 
pull heavier loads and to make a trip more quickly. 

2. Good roads make it possible to produce a greater variety of things 
on the farm. There is not much inducement to raise a certain crop 
if it is very difficult to get it into town quickly and in good condition. 
This is especially true of fruit and vegetables, chickens and eggs, and 
milk and butter. These are among the best money-making products 
of the farm, but their production is generally limited to farms within 
a few miles of the towns because of the shameful condition of the coun- 
try roads. 

3. Good roads enable a farmer to sell his produ(;ts when the market 
is right, while bad roads may keep him away from market just when 
prices are best. 

4. Good roads are firm and smooth after rains, and therefore allow 
farmers to do their hauling when the teams are not busy with the 
ploughs. 

5. Good roads give a wider choice of market. If the prices are bet- 
ter in some town a little farther away the farmer can take his products 
there if the roads are good. 

6. Good roads tend to equalize the business on the railroads and in 
the towns and to keep market prices more stable. This is because the 
normal amount of business between town and country can go along 
all the time if the roads are good, whereas, during the time when roads 
are very bad the entire business of a community is at a standstill. 

7. Good roads induce tourists to travel in the country and often 
control the location of summer homes. Tourist travel is not always 
appreciated, but it is very valuable to any community both socially 
and financially. 

439 



440 



APPENDIX I 



8. Good roads make possible the rural mail delivery. This is one of 
the greatest social and educational benefits to any country. 

9. Good roads make it possible to build up the country schools by 
consolidating several small district schools to make a first-class school 
with higher courses and better equipment. The improvement of our 



ilPER 



^7- 





Fig. 239. Standard cross-sections for first and second class earth roads. 
Iowa Roadway Commission. 

From Ilalligan's "Fundamentals of Agriculture." 



country schools is one of the most important public questions. We 
must have good roads before we can do much with the country high 
schools. 

10. With better facilities for travel and transportation men always 
adopt more liberal views of life and become better citizens. For in- 
stance, in hilly and mountainous countries, travel is always difficult and 
infrequent. The result is that in such districts, even in the old settled 
States, we often have the most shocking outbreaks of crime and law- 
lessness. With good roads through these districts such conditions 
would gradually pass away. 

11. Again, no one wishes to live shut off from friends and neighbors. 
Building good roads has the same effect as bringing the people closer 
together because of the greater ease wdth which they can get from 
place to place. With good roads all through the country we can get 
to the neighbors with comfort, can get the doctor quickly when he is 
needed, can go to social gatherings with pleasure, and can attend church 
or school with convenience. We can keep better stock, better vehicles. 



442 APPENDIX I 

and better harness, adopt more improved agricultural methods, and 
raise a greater variety of crops. 

Building an Earth Road. — The right of way for a first-class road must 
never be less than forty feet and would better be fifty or sixty feet. 
The graded portion of an earth road from ditch to ditch should be at 
least thirty feet. A greater width will be needed when the ditches 
must be large and wide. If the road is in a timbered country, the first 
thing to do is to take out the trees and stumps. If the ground is at 
all level, the crown can then be built up and the side ditches be cut 
out with the large four-wheel grader. It usually takes six or eight 
horses to pull these graders, but they will do the work much more 
quickly and make a better road at less cost than can be made in any 
other way. It will usually be necessary to use plow and scrapers at 
some places. 

Drainage. — Drainage is probably the most important thing about 
any road, especially an earth road. An earth road built of hard earth 
would be a good road all the time if it were not for the water. The 
first step in draining a road is to make the water that falls all over 
the surface of the road to run at once into ditches at the sides. This 
is done by making the road higher in the middle than at the sides, or 
making a crown, as this is called. The next step is to make the water 
flow away from the road along the side ditches until it comes to some 
creek or other natural outlet. Laying out the side ditches correctly is 
a very important matter, of which you can learn in the references. 

Maintenance: the Road Drag. — Making needed repairs and keeping 
the road in good condition is called maintenance. No road, not even 
one of gravel or rock, can be made so good that it will last long with- 
out being taken care of. With earth roads this consists principally in 
keeping the ditches clean, repairing culverts, filling washes, and drag- 
ging the surface after rains. The most important thing in mainte- 
nance of an earth road is the dragging of the surface after every rain. 
We know that if any travel goes over an earth road just after a rain, 
while it is still wet, there will be tracks and ruts. If these are allowed 
to dry and harden it will be weeks and sometimes months before the 
road becomes smooth. The next rain comes and catches the road with 
ruts and holes. The water stands in these instead of flowing to the 
side ditches as it should. This standing water softens the soil at the 



'i 












yf^^f^^ff^ 


k| 


m 


m' wft". 








>-*>' 'J 


W-r 


r 


1 

1 






i 


f^ 




; .■„ '' ..-..■ • ' vi ;■ 


■'■i? 


ij 1 


^^^^^ll 




Fig. 241. Above, the road after the rain; below, the same road after the 
) of the split-log drag. 

Courtesy of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. 



444 



APPENDIX I 




bottom of the hole so that the first wheel that runs into it goes down. 
That is how the worst ruts and mud holes are formed. No road, 
whether of earth, gravel, or rock, can possibly be good long if it has ruts 
or uneven places on the surface in which water will stand after rains. 
On a dirt road all this can be prevented by dragging the road just after 

rains and thus scraping 
off the ridges and filling 
up the holes. Various 
kinds of drags may be 
used. Some use a piece 
of railroad rail, some a 
flat drag made by nail- 
ing overlapping timbers 
together, some a drag 
made of two halves of a 
split log or of two tim- 
bers two inches by 
twelve fastened together as shown in Figure 270, some a factory-made 
metal drag. In pulling any one of these over the road one should allow 
the end next the ditch to be somewhat ahead of the other end. The 
drag will then push a little earth toward the centre and thus help pre- 
serve the crown of the road. Any of the above types of drag will do the 
work if used properly and at the right time. The time to use a drag 
is soon after the rain, while the ground is a little too wet to plow. 
When thus used, the drag smooths out the rough places and keeps the 
road ready for travel. It tends to make the surface "cake" and harden 
and thus soak up less water at the next rain. Most important of all, it 
preserves the crown of the road and allows all the water to run quickly 
into the ditches at the next rain. 

The making and maintenance of sand-clay, gravel, macadam, and 
other types of roads, as well as the principles of laying out roads, you 
can learn from the references. 



Fig. 242. A good form of split-log drag. 



APPENDIX I 445 



QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES 

1. Are roads built and kept in order in your county by bonds and 
taxation? How are the expenses met? 

2. Make a list of the advantages that would come to your com- 
munity if there were good roads. 

3. Why is it right and best to issue bonds and lay out, grade, and 
surface roads properly rather than continue mending a bad road in a 
cheap way from year to year? 

REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

No. 311. *' Sand-clay and Burnt-clay Roads.'* 
No. 338. "Macadam Roads." 
No. 505. "Benefits of Improved Roads." 
No. 597. "Road Drag and How Used." 



APPENDIX II 

SILOS 

Definition. — A silo is an air-tight structure for the preserving of 
green forage crops such as corn, sorghum, cow-peas, and Kafir corn in 
their original green state. The material preserved in a silo is called 
silage or ensilage. It fills the same place in the diet of live-stock that 
canned fruits and vegetables do in the diet of people. We are all famil- 
iar with the value of green vegetables as a means of keeping the body 
healthy. Grass is just as necessary to live-stock, but since we cannot 
always have green grass in the winter-time or during seasons of drought, 
we build silos to preserve forage crops in their green state. When the 
silage is placed in the air-tight silo in the green state it ferments, be- 
comes very hot, and causes the formation of carbon dioxide in the silage, 
which forces out all of the air. This kills the bacteria and keeps the 
silage in a sweet condition. 

Uses of the Silo. — Silos are valuable in several ways. First, they 
furnish green food for the live-stock all the year round. Second, they 
preserve the entire stalk in such a form that it can all be eaten by ani- 
mals, while if it were cured dry the stock would waste a large percent- 
age of it simply because they cannot eat the hard dried stalk. Third, 
when the season turns out so dry that corn or a similar crop would 
not produce any grain, it may be harvested while still green and pre- 
served in the silo, whereas if it remained in the field all the fodder would 
dry up and be destroyed by sun, wind, and rain. 

Kinds of Silos. — The first silo was a square pit dug in the ground. 
This was filled with green fodder and soil was thrown over the top. This 
silo was inconvenient because it was hard to get the silage out of it. 
The next kind was the square silo above ground. This kind was dis- 
carded on account of its being difficult to exclude the air from the square 
corners. Wherever air gets in, the silage moulds and spoils. Almost 
all silos now are built above ground and are built round. They may 

446 



APPENDIX II 447 

be constructed of wooden staves, stone, brick, concrete blocks, rein- 
forced concrete, tile with cement lining, or steel. They must be tall, so 
that the weight of the silage will be great enough to force out most of 
the air by packing, and they must be air-tight. 

Animals That Eat Silage. — Silage is more important probably for 
dairy cattle than any other class of live-stock, as it is necessary for 
them to have green or succulent food to give large amounts of milk. 
The dairy cow will eat from thirty to seventy-five pounds of silage per 
day according to her size and capacity. The silo is also very important 
in the feeding of beef cattle, as it keeps them in good condition and 
induces them to eat a large amount of foodstuffs that can be raised 
cheaply. A fine quality of silage is often fed to horses and mules to 
great advantage. It has too much juice in it to be used advanta- 
geously as a food for hard-worked horses or mules. The effect is very 
much the same as that of fresh grass when fed to such horses or mules. 
Silage is not a satisfactory food for hogs or poultry. They eat the 
grain in it, but will not eat anything else except a few of the tenderest 
blades. 

Crops Used for Silage. — The best crops for use as silage are corn, 
sorghum, Kafir corn, milo-maize, and cow-peas. Sometimes such crops 
as alfalfa, clover, and Johnson grass are also used. Alfalfa and clover 
usually contain too much moisture to make a good quality of silage, as 
the moisture tends to cause the silage to sour. 

Time to Harvest Silage Crops. — The crop should be fully mature 
before it is cut for the silo, as otherwise it will contain too much moist- 
ure and will make what is known as sour silage. Corn should be 
placed in silos just as the ear begins to harden and the kernels begin 
to dent. Kafir corn, milo-maize, and sorghum should be placed in the 
silo as soon as the seeds are ripe. 

REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

No. 878. "Making and Feeding of Silage." 

No. 825. "Pit Silos." 

No. 855. "Homemade Silos." 



APPENDIX III 

BOYS' CORN CLUBS AND CORN-JUDGING 

How Clubs are Organized. — Under the direction of the teacher a 
boys' corn club may be formed at any school, but the usual unit of 
organization is the county. Usually the county superintendent of pub- 
lic instruction issues a call explaining the purpose of the club and in- 




FiG. 243. 



The Smith County, Texas, Boys' Corn-Chib exhibit. 
Courtesy of ''Farm and Ranch."' 



viting all boys between ten and eighteen years of age who are inter- 
ested to meet at the county-seat on a certain date. The object of the 
club is generally explained by both the superintendent and by one of 
the travelling lecturers of the United States Department of Agriculture. 
The club is organized and the names of the members are sent to the 
United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Va- 
rious helpful bulletins and suggestions are then sent by the department 
to each boy. Usually prizes are offered by local men or business firms 

448 












i-'iG. 244. The Upshur County, Texas, Boys' Corn Club. 
Courtesy of " Farm and Ranch." 




Fig. 24.'). 'I'he Boys and Girls' Milo Club, Haskell County, Texas. 
Courtesy of " Farm and Ranch." 



450 



APPENDIX III 



for the best results secured by any boy in the country, and State prizes 
are offered for the best results in the State. One boy from each State 
is at times given a trip to Washington as a part of his prize. 




Fig. 246. A member of the canning club gathering tomatoes from her garden. 
Courtesy of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

Basis for Awarding Prizes. — The prizes are awarded on the following 
basis: 

a. Greatest yield per acre 30 per cent 

b. Best exhibit of ten ears 20 per cent 

c. Best written account showing history of crop . . 20 per cent 

d. Best showing of profit on investment based 

on commercial price of corn 30 per cent 

Total 100 per cent 



APPENDIX III 



451 




Pig. 247. An exhibit of the Girls' Canning Club's work. 
Courtesy of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

How to Secure Information. — Full details of the methods of organ- 
izing and conducting corn clubs, tomato clubs, and other agricultural 
and home economics clubs may be secured from the county demonstra- 
tion agent, the State Agricultural and Mechanical College, or the Na- 
tional Department of Agriculture. These will send helpful bulletins 
and often give personal assistance in organizing the club. 

Corn- Judging. — Corn- judging is a very important part of corn-breed- 
ing. There is no absolute standard, as there is more than one type of 
corn, and a standard for corn grown on one type of soil and under 




Fig. 248. On the left, a good butt and tip; on the right, two faulty butts. 
Courtesy of Professor J. A. Jeffery, of the Michigan Agricultural College. 



452 APPENDIX III 

one set of climatic conditions would be unsuited to corn grown under 
widely different conditions. There are therefore several methods of 
scoring corn which differ in some details. The following score-card is 
one widely used. 

CORN SCORE-CARD 



1 Trueness to Type or Breed Characteristics 


10 




2 Shape of Ear 


10 




3 Color: a. Grain 


5 


b. Cob 


5 




4 Market Condition 


10 




5 Tips 


5 




6 Butts 


5 




7 Kernels: a. Uniformity of 


10 




b. Shape of 


5 




8 Length of Ear 


10 




9 Circumference of Ear 


5 




10 Space: a. Furrow between rows 


5 




b. Space between kernels at cob 


5 




11 Percentage of Corn 


10 




Total 


100 





A sample of corn for judging or exhibition consists of ten ears. The 
several points are judged in the following manner. 

Directions for Judging 

1. Each ear should have the special characteristics of the type to 
which it belongs. In scoring cut one-half point for each variation in 
type of kernel and for each ear that varies from type. 

2. The shape should be cylindrical, very slightly tapering, rows 
should be straight from butt entirely over tip. Cut one-half point for 
each poorly shaped ear. 

3. Both kernels and cob should be free from all evidence of crossing. 
White corn should have white cob and yellow corn red cob. Cut one- 
tenth point off for each mixed kernel and ten points off for a cob of 
wrong color. 




Fig. 249. Two excellent ears. 

Courtesy of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. 




Fig. 250. The ear at the left Is too short and thick, though good in other re- 
spects; the second is a desirable ear; the third has an enlarged butt and irreg- 
ular rows; the fourth is too slender. 

From the University of Wisconsin Circular of Information No. 8. 



454 



APPENDIX III 



4. Corn should be ripe, firm on cob, sound, free from injury or dis- 
ease, bright in color. Cut one point off for each diseased, injured, im- 
mature, or chaffy ear. 

5. Kernels should extend over the tip in regular rows and be of uni- 
form size. Cut one-fourth point for badly covered tip, one-half point 

for every inch of exposed 
tip, one-eighth point for 
every eighth inch of ex- 
posed tip. 

6. Kernels should be well 
rounded, the shank or ear 
stalk equal to about one- 
third of the total diameter 
of the ear. Cut one-half 
point for every uncovered 
butt, three-tenths point for 
butt covered with flat or 
small kernels. 

7. The kernels should be 
alike in size, shape, and 
color. The shape should be 
that of a wedge, the tip full 
and plump. Cut one point 
for each ear with kernels not 
uniform and one-half for 
each ear with poorly shaped 
kernels. 

8 and 9. The length and 
circumference should be up 
to standard for the variety 
for the section in which 
the corn is grown. In gen- 
eral, the circumference should be equal to three-fourths of the length. 
Take the sum of the excesses and deficiencies in length and cut one 
point for each inch; do .the same for the circumferences and cut one- 
half point for each inch. 

10. The furrows between rows should be small and there should be 
no space between kernels in the row, nor any noticeable space between 
the kernels where they join the cob. Cut one-fourth point for furrows 
one thirty-second to one-sixteenth inch, and one-half point for furrows 




Fig. 251. A study of kernels. The upper 
three kernels are well proportioned and 
occupy completely the space between the 
circumference of the ear and the circumfer- 
ence of the cob. The upper right-hand two 
kernels are poorly shaped and leave a lot 
of unoccupied space. The lower right-hand 
two kernels show how the white rice pop- 
corn kernels occupy the space. The lower 
two kernels are of the shoe-peg type. The 
left two kernels show the relative shape and 
position of flint kernels as compared with 
the upper three dent kernels. 

Courtesy of Professor J. A. Jeffery. 



APPENDIX III ,455 

one-sixteenth inch or wider. Cut one-fourth to one-half point for each 
ear that shows noticeable space between kernels at the cob. 

11. The per cent of shelled corn should be equal to the standard for 
the variety. Usually well-matured corn should give eighty-five to 
eighty-seven per cent grain. Cut one point for each per cent short of 
standard. 



APPENDIX IV 

LENGTH OF TIME SEEDS MAINTAIN THEIR VITALITY 

AVERAGE 
YEARS 

Barley 3 

Bean 3 

Beet 6 

Buckwheat 2 

Cabbage 5 

Carrot 4 

Celery 8 

Clover 3 

Corn 2 

Cucumber, common 6 

Egg-plant 6 

Flaj: 2 

Hop 2 

Lettuce, common 5 

Millet 2 

Muskmelon 5 

Mustard 3 

Oats 3 

Onion 2 

Orchard grass 2 

Parsnip 2 

Pea-nut 1 

Peas 3 

Pumpkin 5 

Radish 5 

Rape 5 

Rye 2 

Salsify 2 

Soy-bean 2 

Squash 6 

Timothy 2 

Turnip 6 

Watermelon 6 

Wheat 2 

456 



APPENDIX IV 457 



QUANTITY OF SEED SOWN PER ACRE 

Alfalfa (broadcast) 20-30 lbs. 

Alfalfa (drilled) 15-20 lbs. 

Barley 8-10 pks. 

Beans (field) 2-6 pks. 

Blue-grass (sown alone) 25 lbs. 

Brome grass (sown alone) , . . . 12-20 lbs. 

Buckwheat 3-5 pks. 

Cabbage I- 1 lb. 

Carrot 4-6 Iba. 

Clover (alsike alone) 8-15 lbs. 

Clover (red alone) 10-18 lbs. 

Corn ^ &- 8 qts. 

Corn (for silage) 9-11 qts. 

Cotton 1- 2 bu. 

Cow-pea I-I2 bu. 

Flax 2-4 pks. 

Mangels 5-8 lbs. 

Millet 1-3 pks. 

Oats 2- 3 bu. 

Potato 6-20 bu. 

Potato (recommended) 15-18 bu. 

Pumpkin 4 lbs. 

Rape 2-8 lbs. 

Red-top (recleaned) 12-15 lbs. 

Rice 1- 3 bu. 

Rye 3-8 pks. 

Sugar beets 15-20 lbs. 

Sweet potato l^- 4 bu. 

Timothy 10-20 lbs. 

Timothy and clover: 

Timothy 10-15 lbs. 

Clover 4-10 lbs. 

Turnip (broadcast) 2-4 lbs. 

Vetch (hairy) 1 bu. plus 1 bu. small grain. 

Wheat 6- 9 pks. 



458 APPENDIX IV 



WEIGHT AND MEASURE OF FEEDSTUFFS 

ONE QUART ONE POUND 

FEED WEIGHS MEASURE 

Cotton-seed meal 1.5 lbs. 0.7 qt. 

Wheat middlings (flour) 1.2 lbs. 0.8 qt. 

Wheat middlings (standard) 0.8 lb. 1.3 qts. 

Wheat mixed feed 0.6 lb. 1.7 qts. 

Wheat bran 0.5 lb. 2.0 qts. 

Whole oats 1.0 lb. 1.0 qt. 

Ground oats 0.7 lb. 1 . 4 qts. 

Wholewheat 1.9 lbs. 0.5 qt. 

Ground wheat 1.7 lbs. 0.6 qt. 

Whole corn 1.7 lbs. 0.6 qt. 

Corn meal 1.5 lbs. 0.7 qt. 

Corn and cob meal 1.4 lbs. 0.7 qt. 

Corn bran 0.5 lb. 2.0 qts. 

Hominy meal 1.1 lbs. 0.9 qt. 

Corn and oat feed 0.7 lb. 1.4 qts. 

Whole barley 1.5 lbs. 0.7 qt. 

Barley meal 1.1 lbs. 0.9 qt. 

Whole rye 1.7 lbs. 0.6 qt. 

Rye meal 1.5 lbs. 0.7 qt. 

Rice bran 0.8 lb. 1.3 qts. 

Rice polish 1.2 lbs. 0.8 qt. 

Cotton-seed hulls 0.26 1b. 3.8 qts. 

Alfalfa meal 1.0 lb. 1 .0 qt. 

Molasses (blackstrap) 3.0 lbs. 0.3 qt. 



APPENDIX IV 459 



AVERAGE LEGAL WEIGHTS PER BUSHEL OF SOME 
FARM PRODUCTS 

WEIGHT, IN 

NAME OF MATERIAL POUNDS 

Apples 48 

Apples (dried) 24 

Barley 48 

Bfeans 60 

Buckwheat 52 

Carrots 50 

Clover-seed 60 

Corn (ear) 70 

Corn (shelled) 56 

Cotton-seed ^ 32 

Flax-seed 56 

Kentucky blue-grass (seed) 14 

Millet 50 

Oats 32 

Onions 57 

Peas 60 

Potatoes '(Irish) 60 

Potatoes (sweet) 55 

Rye 56 

Timothy-seed 45 

Turnips 55 

Wheat 60 



GLOSSARY 



(The number indicates the paragraph in which the word is defined and 
the pronunciation given. When the word occurs in the Appendix, the 
reference gives the number of the Appendix.) 



Adventitious 40 

Alkah 74 

Alkahne 88 

Analysis 90 

Annular 38 

Antennae 242 

Anther 44 

Bacteria 6 

Balanced ration 322 

Bare fallow 2 

Boll 137 

Bordeaux 248 

Budding 50 

Bud-scales 22 

Calcium 91 

Calyx. 43 

Cambium 33 

Capillary 36 

Capillary water 64 

Carbohydrate 27 

Carbon 27 

Carbonaceous 316 

Carbon dioxide 25 

Casein 279 

Chlorophyl 31 

Chrvsalis 242 

Clay.... 61 

Commercial fertiUzer 107 

Concentrate 320 

Corolla 43 

Cotyledons 21 

Cross-pollenation 46 

Culm 50 

Cultivator 129 

Cutting 50 

Denitrifying 88 

Disintegrate 58 

Division 50 



Domesticate 2 

Dormant 11 

Dust mulch 71 

Elaborated 34 

Element 90 

Embryo 10 

Ensilage Appen. IV 

Excreta 347 

Fertilization 44 

Fertihzer 2 

Fibro-vascular 34 

Filament 44 

Fungi 50 

Fungicide 248 

Germination 11 

Glacier 57 

Grade 256 

Grafting 50 

Green manure 103 

Growing point 22 

Half-blood 256 

Harrow 128 

Herbaceous 22 

Hibernation 242 

High grade 256 

Horticulture 224 

Host 246 

Humus 66 I 

Hybrids 46 « 

Imago 241 

Inoculation 172 

Irrigation 73 

Laboratory 90 

Lactic-acid bacteria 276 

Larva 242 

Lateral 17 

Layering 50 

Legume 105 



460 



GLOSSARY 



461 



Lespedeza 186 

Life-cycle 242 

Litmus paper 88 

Loam 61 

Lock 137 

Maize 147 

Medullary 35 

Mohair 296 

Muck 61 

Neutral 88 

Nitrogen 32 

Nitrogenous 316 

Node 50 

Nutrients 322 

Nymph 242 

Organism 65 

Osmosis 19 

Ovary 44 

Ovule 44 

Panicle 148 

Parasite 247 

Pasteurizing 281 

Peat 61 

Petal 43 

Petiole 52 

Phloem , 34 

Phosphorus 91 

Pistil 43 

Pistillate 45 

Plant food 28 

Plant- food material 28 

Plantlet 12 

Plumule 21 

Poll 261 

Pollen 44 

Pollenation 44 

Potassium 91 

Prepotent 260 

Primary branches 137 

Protein 32 



Protoplasm 32 

Pupa 242 

Radicle 17 

Reserve food 10 

Reversion 46 

Root-hairs 17 

Root pressure 36 

Root-stock 50 

Rotation 2 

Roughage 320 

Rudimentary 261 

Saprophite 247 

Scion 51 

Seedhng 22 

Sepals 43 

Silage Appen IV 

Silt 61 

Spiracles s 243 

Sputum 347 

Stamens 43 

Staminate 45 

Sterihze 281 

Stigma 44 

Stock 51 

Stolons 50 

Stoma 27 

Stomata 27 

Stomates 27 

Stover 162 

Style 44 

Tap-root 17 

Tassel 148 

Terminal bud 22 

Tillage 119 

Tuber 50 

Tubercle 105 

Udder Figure 185 

Variation 46 

Weathering 58 

Xylem.... 34 



INDEX 

(Numbers refer to paragraphs.) 



Aberdeen-Angus cattle, 261 

Accounting, farm, 330-333 

Agriculture, importance of, 1; im- 
provement in, 2-4 

Alfalfa, 179-185 

Angora goat, 296 

Animal bodies, composition of, 314 

Animal rations, basis for calculat- 
ing, 322 

Animals, care of, 319; diet of, 321 

Annular bud, 52 

Anther, 44 

Arab breed of horse, 286 

Arsenate of lead, 250 

Ayrshire cattle, 269 

Babcock test, 264 

Bacteria, 50; cause of plant dis- 
ease, 247; on roots of legumes, 
171 

Balanced ration defined, 322; how 
to calculate for animals, 323 

Bark, outer and inner cells of, 38; 
uses of, 33 

Barn, the, 328 

Basement, 340 

Belgian horse, the, 287 

Berkshire hog, 300 

Birds as insect destroyers, 246; in- 
jurious, 237 

Black rot, 240 

Black rust, 247 

Boll-weevil, losses from, 238; 
spread of, 240 

Bordeaux mixture, 250 

Bran mash, 250 

Breeding animals, 256, 260, 267, 
268, 305 

plants: crossing, 46, 47; five- 
year breeding plan for cot- 
ton, 204; improving corn, 
151-154; variation and se- 
lection, 48, 49 



Brown Swiss cattle, 269 
Bud, adventitious, 40; terminal, 22 
Budding, 50-53; nut trees, 233 
Bulk necessary in diet, 385 
Butter, 279 

Calyx, 43 

Cambium, described, 33; plants 
without, 41; uses of, 38-40 

Capillary attraction, 36; water, 64 

Carbohydrates, defined, 27; in 
plants, 317; use of, by animals, 
317 

Carbon bisulphide for destroying 
insects, 250 

Carbon dioxide, 25 

Cattle, beef, breeds of, 261; judg- 
ing, 260; classes of, 259; dairy, 
returns from, 262; dual-pur- 
pose, 270 

Cheese, 280 

Chester White hog, 300 

Chicken-house, 308 

Chickens, breeds of, 310 

Chinch-bug, losses from, 238 

Chlorophyl, 31 

Churning, 279 

Churns, 279 

Clovers, 186 

Clydesdale, the, 287 

Coach-horses, 284 

Colantha Fourth's Johanna, 263 

Cold-frames, 211 

Colorado beetles, 240 

Compost, 100-102 

Concentrates, 320 

Concrete filling for decayed trees, 
235 

Copper sulphate, 250 

Corn, 147-163; ear-to-row test of, 
153, 154; Egyptian, 165; judg- 
ing, App. Ill; made in spite of 
drought, 5; testing, 152, 154 



462 



INDEX 



463 



Corn-club boys, 7 

Corn clubs, App. Ill 

Corolla, 43 

Cotswold sheep, 293 

Cotton, 136-146; crop, loss on, 
238; worm, losses from, 238 

Cotyledon, defined, 21; plants 
with one, 41 

Cow, dairy, judging, 264, 268 

Cow-peas, 178 

Cream, composition of, 278 

Crop accounting, 333 

Crop limit set by most deficient 
food element, 106 

Cops, for, silage, App. II; rota- 
tion of, 115-118 

Crossing plants, 46, 47 

Culm, 50 

Cultivation, 126 

Cultivators, 129 

Curtains, 335 

Cuttings 50 

Cutworm, 215 

Dairy bull, 268; cattle, breeds of, 
269; type of cow, 266, 267 

Dairying, suited to Texas, 263; 
what is necessary in, 274 

Devon breed of cattle, 270 

Diary, farm, 331, 332 

Diet, of animals, 321 

Disease, resistant varieties of 
plants, 249 

Disease, plant, losses from, 238 

Disintegration, 58 

Dorsethorn sheep, 293 

Drains, 80, 81 

Draft-horses, 284; breeds of, 287 

Dry farming, 72 

Ducks 311 

Duroc-Jersey hog, 300 

Durra, varieties of, 165 

Dust mulch, 71 

Dutch belted cattle, 269 

Ear-to-row test, 153 

Eggs, how to keep fresh a year, 312 

Embryo, 10 

Farm, accounting, 330-333; plan, 



324-329; products, tabic giv- 
ing legal weights per bushel, 
App. IV; school, 220 

Fat in the dietary of animals, 
317 

Fat steer, 260 

FeedstufTs, table giving weights 
and measures of, App. IV 

FertiKzer distributors, 131 

Fertihzers, 106-114 

Fields, plan for, 325 

Filament, 44 

Five-year breeding plan, 204 

Flowers, male and female, 45; 
parts of, 43 

Food, amount required per day by 
animals, 323; how used by ani- 
mals, 313 

Foods, green, use of, to animals, 
315 

Formalin for plant diseases, 250 

French Canadian breed of cattle, 
269 

French coach-horse, 286 

Fruit garden, home, 224 

Fruiting spurs, 230 

Fruits at all seasons, 226; value of, 
225 

Fruit trees, cultivation of, 231 

Fungi, cause of plant diseases, 247; 
spores of, 247 

Fungicides, 250 

Galloway, the, 261 

Garden, home fruit, 224; and inex- 
perienced teacher, 223; home 
vegetables, 205-2 10 ; pests, means 
of protection against, 215 ; plant- 
ing table for, 214; records and 
reports, 221; school, 216-223; 
seeds, 219; tools, 218; truck, 205 

Gasolene-engine and farm machin- 
ery, 133 

Geese, 311 

German coach-horse, 286 

Germination, defined, 11; experi- 
ments in, 13-15 

Glaciers, 57 

Goats, 296 

Grafting, 50-53 



464 



INDEX 



Green manure or stock-feeding, 104 
Growing point, 22 
Guernsey, 269 
Guineas, 311 

Hackney, the, 286 

Hampshire Down sheep, 293 

Hampshire hog, 301 

Harrows, 128 

Heehng-in trees, 229 

Hereford, the, 261 

Hessian fly, losses from, 238 

Hog-houses, 328 

Hog industry, 297 

Hogs, breeds of, 300, 301; care of, 
298; classes of, 299; for breedmg 
purposes, 299; judging, 299 

Holstein-Friesian, 269 

Home garden, 206-210 

Homestead, the, 328 

Horse, the, 282; raising, 283 

Horses, breeds of, 286, 287; judg- 
ing, 284, 285; types of, 284 

Horticulture defined, 224 

Hot-beds, 211 

House, care of, 339; convenience 
and simplicity of arrangement 
of, 335; fly, 358 

Houses, tenant, 329 

Humus defined, 66 

Hybrids, 46 

Immune varieties of plants, 249 
Implements, result of improved, 

120; shed for, 328 
Inoculation for legumes, 172; for 

tick fever, 272 
Insecticides, 250 
Insect pests, reasons for increase 

of, 239 
Insects, described, 242; losses 

from, 237; manner of feeding 

and breathing of, 243; means of 

combating, 244, 245; natural 

enemies of, 246 
Irrigation, 73-76; for rice, 203 

Jacoba, Irene, 263 

Jersey, 269 

Judging, cattle, 260, 264, 268, 269; 



hogs, 299; live-stock, 258; 
horses, 284, 285; sheep, 290 

Kafir, varieties of, 165 
Kerosene emulsion, 250 
Kerry breed of cattle, 269 
Kitchen, 336 
Knapp, Dr., 7 

Lady-JDird beetle, 246 

Layering, 50 

Leaching, 83; how to prevent, 87; 

loss by, 86 
Legumes, defined, 105; planted in 

orchard, 231; value of, 170 
Leicester sheep, 293 
Lime, hydrated, 250; sulphur 

spray, 250 
Lincoln sheep, 293 
Live-stock, judging, 258 

Machinery, care of, 134 

Manure distributors, 131 

Manures, 97-105; green, 104 

Merino sheep, 294, 295 

Milk, composition of, 275; danger 
in, 277; how produced in cow, 
265; pail, 276; souring of, and 
prevention of souring of, 267; 
sterilizing and pasteurizing, 281 ; 
veins, 265; wells, 265 

Milo, 165 

Mineral matter in animals, 318 

Mules, 288 

Mutton, sheep, 292, 293 

Nitrogen in protoplasm, 32; loss of, 

to air from soil, 88 
Nodes, 50 

Nutrients for animals, 313, 318 
Nut-trees, 233 

Orchards, 224-232; protection of, 

from cold, 232 
Osmosis, 19 
Ovary of flower, 44 
Ovule, 44 
Oxford Down sheep, 293 

Pacer, 286 



INDEX 



465 



Parasitic plants, 237 

Paris green, 250 

Pasture, 326 

Pea-nuts, 173-177 

Percheron, the, 287 

Pests, means of combating,238-240 

Petal, 43 

Petiole, 52 

Phloem, 34 

Pistils, 43 

Plant, composition of crude food 
of, 25; growing point of, 22; how 
builds new^ living substance, 32; 
how develops, 22; how gets 
crude food material, 24; how 
gets first food, 20; how gives off 
water, 26; how heals w^ounds, 39; 
how makes starch and sugar, 
27-29; how saves its life, 40; 
how uses carbohydrates, 30; 
food materials, 95, 96; reserve 
food of, 21 

Plant diseases, causes of, 247; con- 
trol of, 248 

Plant enemies, varieties of, 237 

Planters, 130/ 

Plants, crossing and improving, 
46 ; disease-resistant varieties of, 
249; how to bud, 52; how to 
cross, 47; ten elements in, 91; 
that add nitrogen to soil, 105; 
variation in, 48; ways of repro- 
ducing, 42 

Plowing, 122-125 

Plows, 127 

Poland-China hog, 300 

Polled Durham, 261 

Polled Hereford, 261 

Pollen, 44 

PoUenation, 44; cross-, 46 

Potato crop, loss on, 238 

Poultry, 302-312; feeding of, 306, 
307; houses, 308, 328; protec- 
tion of, 308, 309 

Protein, described, 32; foods for 
animals containing, 316; in ani- 
mal body, 316 

Protoplasm described, 32 

Pruning fruit trees, bushes, and 
vines, 230 



Rambouillet sheep, 295 

Ration, balanced, for animals, 313 

Rations for animals, basis for cal- 
culating, 322 

Reapers, 130 

Red polled cattle, 270 

Red rust, 247 

Reproduction of plants, 42 

Reserve food, 10, 21 

Rice, 197-204; soils in Texas and 
Louisiana, 199 

Ring bud, 52 

Road-horses, 284 

Roads, good, App. I 

Root, hairs, 17; lateral, 17; pres- 
sure, 36; stocks, 50; tap, 17 

Roots, 17-19 

Rotation, of crops, 2," 115-118; as 
a means of combating insects, 
245 

Roughage in rations, 320 

Saddle-horses, 284, 286 

Sap, circulation of, 35, 36 

School, farm, 220; garden, 216-223 

Scion, 51 

Seeds, differences in, 16; germi- 
nation of, 11-15; how produced, 
44; parts of, 10; table giving 
length of vitality and amounts 
to sow per acre, App. IV; veg- 
etable, imported and home- 
grown, 214 

Selection, results of, 49 

Sepals, 43 

Separator, 278 

Shade-trees, severe cutting back 
of, transplanting, 234 

Sheep, classes of, 291; in America 
and Texas, 289; judging, 290 

Shield bud, 52 

Shire, the, 287 

Shorthorn, the, 261 

Shropshire sheep, 293 

Silage, App. II 

Silos, App. II 

Smudges, use of, 232 

Soil, acid test for, 88; drains, 80; 
earth once without, 55 ; how ex- 
hausted, 83-94; how improved. 



466 



INDEX 



68-82, 94-95; how made, 56-59; 
how named, 61; of what com- 
posed, 60, 63-67; varieties of, 61 

Sorghums, 164-169 

Southdown sheep, 293 

Soy-bean, 178 

Spraying for fungus diseases, 248 

Stamen, 43 

Stem, circulation of food in, 34; 
how increases size, 37; structure 
of, 33 

Sterihzation of infected soil, 248 

Stigma, 44 

Stock, 51; for soup, 403; scrub, 
disadvantages in raising, 255; 
how to improve, 256; raising, in 
Texas, 254; reasons for raising, 
on farm, 252-253 

Stolons, 50 

Stomata of leaves, 27 

Stover defined, 162 

Style, 44 

Suffolk, the, 287 

Sugar-cane, 187-196 

Sulphur for insects, 250 

Surface washing, 83, 84 

Sussex breed of cattle, 261 

Tamworth hog, 301 
Tenant-houses, 329 
Terrace, how to make, 85; level, 

84 
Thoroughbred horses, 286 
Tick fever, cause of, 271; value of 

discovery of cause of, 272 
Ticks, exterminating, 273 
Tillage, advantage of, 121; defini- 



tion of, 119; implements of, 
Chapter VI 

Tool and implement shed, 328 

Tools, garden, 132, 217 

Transpiration, 25 

Transplanting trees, 228; vegeta- 
bles, 212 

Trap crops, 245; piles of rubbish, 
245 

Trees, fiUing decayed, 235; prun- 
ing, 230, 234; transplanting, 228 

Trotter, 286 

Truck garden, 205 

Tuber, 50 

Tubercles, defined, 105; on roots 
of legumes, 171 

Turkeys, 311 

Udder, 265 

Variation and selection, 48, 49 

Water, in animal body, 315; 

wasted, need of conserving, 77 
Watering plants, 213 
Weathering defined, 58 
Weeds, 237; supporters of insects, 

245 
West Highland cattle, 261 
Whale-oil-soap emulsion, 250 
Wind-break, 232 
Wood lot, 327 
Workshop, 328 

Xylem, 34 

Yorkshire hog, 301 



